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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
In 2007 with funding from 
Microsoft Corporation 


http://www. archive.org/details/comparativelatinOOallerich 


LATIN GRAMMAR. 





LATIN GRAMMAR 


FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 


FOUNDED ON COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR 


BY 


JOSEPH H. ALLEN 


AND 


JAMES B. GREENOUGHL 


BOSTON 
PUBLISHED BY GINN BROTHERS 


38 BEACON STREET 


1875 


60 
AYa) 
13°75 


BERNARD MOSES 


Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by 
J. H. ALLEN AND J. B. GREENOUGH, 


In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 


earee 
o 
e 


ene 


CAMBRIDGE: 
PRESS OF JOHN WILSON AND SON. 


PREFACE. 


Our aim has been to prepare, within moderate com- 
pass, a complete Latin grammar, to be used from the 
beginning of the study of Latin until the end of a 
college course. The whole has been composed from 
our own point of view, and is, in all essentials, a new 
and independent work. But we have used freely the 
standard authorities, as well those of the older scho- 
lastic as of the newer critical and scientific schools. 
In several points, particularly the topical arrangement 
of the Syntax, we have followed the outline sketched 
a few years ago by Professor Allen, of the University 
of Wisconsin. 

We have endeavored to adapt the scientific (philo- 
logical) method of inflection by stem and termination 
to the system used by the Romans themselves and 
handed down by general custom to our time. While 
the five Declensions are retained, with the old distinc- 
tions on which they are founded, at the same time the 
true philological difference, that of stems, is fully 
exhibited as the real basis of noun-forms. In the same 
way the true distinctions of verb-stems are adapted 
to the existing four Conjugations. We have preferred 
this to the “ crude-form” system, partly because of 
the practical difficulty that our lexicons do not give 


887441 


vi a ame EFACE. 


stems, but words ;. shietiy, hower er, , fi om the inherent 
difficulty of a- “@riide-forn,. “system ja, a: language so 
decayed as the Latin. 

In respect to the actual forms of the language, we 
have not thought it necessary to go back of Neue’s 
‘¢Formenlehre,”’ upon which we have relied, and which 
teachers will find digested so far as seems to come 
within the limits of a work like the present. 

In the Syntax, our design has been to leave no 
principle untouched which a student needs during his 
school and college course. We have attempted to 
show, as far as possible, the reason and origin of con- 
structions, for which purpose notes have been inserted 
where it seemed desirable. Many things in the treat- 
ment of the Subjunctive, of the Protasis and Apodosis 
(in which we have followed Professor Goodwin’s 
analysis), of Temporal particles, of the Infinitive and 
Participles, and much of the matter of the notes, 
appear for the first time in a school-book, and are the 
results of the authors’ own investigations in Compar- 
ative Grammar. The Syntax is illustrated by upwards 
of a thousand examples cited from classical authorities, 
principally from Cicero; besides nearly as many brief 
phrases in illustration of minor points, particularly 
the use of prepositions and cases. 

In Prosody and Versification we have taken a little 
wider range than usual, so as to enable the student to 
read metrically any poetry he will meet in his college 
course. 

In the typography and mechanical arrangement of 
the page, we have sought to give every aid that can 
be rendered in that way to the easy comprehension of 
the subject. The sub-sections in larger type (num- 


PREFACE. Vii 


bered 1, 2, 8, &c.) contain of themselves a complete 
outline, and we think will be found sufficient, with the 
accompanying paradigms or examples, for a course 
of elementary study. Details of form or structure, re- 
quiring to be committed to memory only as they occur 
in reading, are put in smaller type, marked a, d, c, &e. 
And the points of philology, or special criticism, which 
appear to throw valuable side-light upon the subject, 
interesting chiefly to teachers or special students, are 
contained in the form of Notes, not interfering at all 
with the treatment in the text. By paying attention 
to this subordination of topics, teachers will avoid the 
serious error of crowding upon the student, prema- 
turely, a mass of details, which might only perplex 
and obscure his real understanding of the subject. 


CaMBRIDGE, April, 1872. 


a - 
> rie 
So eH sae 


oe 
“) 


sth oe 

ae si Pl 
Ae lu 
"Ahyt 
leak i. 





NOTE. 


For the convenience of those who may wish to follow out 
special lines of study in general or comparative grammar, or to 
consult original sources on the history and development of the 
Latin, a list of works including the best and. most recent author-— 
ities is here subjoined : — 

Bopp: Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, etc. [Indo-European lan- 

guages]. 4 vols. 8d Ed. Berlin, 1868-70. 


The original standard work on Comparative Forms. Later researches have 
corrected some erroneous details. English translation (poor), London: 1862. 
The best form is a French translation, with Notes and Introductions by Michel 
Bréal. Paris: 1866. 


CorssEn : Aussprache, Vokalismus und Betonung der Lateinischen Sprache. 
2 vols. 2d Ed. Leipzig, 1868. 
The greatest work on Latin-a/one, treating the language in reference to its 


own individual development, particularly as to the sounds (Lawtlehre). In the 
comparative portion, it needs the correction of other investigators. 


over G.: Grundziige der Griechischen Etymologie. 8d Ed. Leipsic: 
8 


Treats of Latin only by comparison; but is one of the most valuable 
works on the general subject. 


Erléuterungen zu meiner Gtriechischen Schul-grammatik. 2d Ed. 
Prag. 1870. English translation (“ Elucidations”), London: 1870. 
Notes giving in connection with the Greek Grammar the simplest view of 

the doctrine of forms. 


DetsricK: Das Conjunctiv und Optativ, im Sanskrit und Griechischen. 
Halle: 1871. 


_ Origin of the Moods treated scientifically; should be read in connection 
with a notice in N. A. Review, Oct. 1871, and “ Analysis of the Latin Subjunc- 
tive,” by J. B. Greenough, Cambridge, 1870. 

Ablativ, Localis, Instrumentalis im indischen, etc. Berlin, 1867. 
Origin of the various Ablative constructions. 

FERRAR: Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin. Won- 
don: 1869. Vol. I., including as far as Pronouns. 
A convenient hand-book in English. 


Fick : Vergleichendes Worterbuch der Indo-Germanischen Sprachen. Got- 
tingen: 1870. 


A Dictionary of Roots and Words supposed to have existed in the Indo- 
European tongue, with the corresponding words and derivatives in the various 








x NOTE. 


languages. It can be used without a knowledge of German. No such book 

however, is safe to use without careful study of the laws of consonant and 

vowel changes. 

Horrmann: Die Construction der Lateinischen Zeitpartikeln. Vienna: 
1860 (Pamphlet). 


Kunn: See Zeitschrift. 
LusBert: Die Syntax von Quom. Breslau: 1870. 


Neve: Formenlehre der Lateinischen Sprache. 2d Ed. Stuttgart, 1866. 
Storehouse of all Latin forms, 1200 pages, containing the result of late text- 

ual criticism. The standard work. 

Prei1LeE: Latin and Greek Etymology. 24d Ed. Macmillan: London and 
Cambridge, 1872. 


- Rosy: A Grammar of the Latin Language, from Plautus to Suetonius. 
Macmillan: London and New York, 1871. Vol. IL. 


A thorough treatment of Latin Etymology on the principles of comparative 
grammar. Some errors have been pointed out in the N. A. Review, Jan. 1872. 


ScHLEICHER: Compendium der Vergleichenden Grammatik der Indo- 
Germanischen Sprachen. 2d Ed. Weimar, 1866. 


ScHWEIZER-S1IpDLER: Elementar- und Formenlehre der Lateinischen 
Sprache, fiir Schulen. Halle, 1869. 


The best summary of the results of comparative grammar as applied to 
Latin in short compass (137 pages). 


Witttams: A Practical Grammar of the Sanskrit Lanquage. 8d Ed. 

Oxford, 1864. 

A very convenient Sanskrit grammar, without some knowledge of which 
it is difficult to pursue the study of comparative grammar to advantage. 
Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende Sprachforschung. Edited by Dr. A. Kunn. 

Vols. I. to XX. Berlin, 1851-1871, and still continued. 

The best essays on all disputed points of comparative Philology. Indispen- 
sable to correct theories of individual investigators. Each volume has am 
Index ; and there is also a general index to the first ten volumes. 


CONTENTS. 





PART I.— ETYMOLOGY. 


SECTION 
1. Alphabet. . . ‘ oi ei 


1. can detadeaaa 2. asi Hocus: 3. Cinch: 4. Com- 
binations ; 5. Syllables. 


Mer PeOOISIOL, ok” oo tet ete kOe BS. i ear epee 8 
DPI 50? CN gc con' icc y fa anc gener ety ue cat git oat 
Me rs et lt hg} Loe a usa as ce, od pees ne aegis kite g 
5. Inflection 
1. Definition ; 2. Root ana ‘Stem: Inflected sarts of 
speech; 4. Particles. 
Gomer’ ono ee See SO ey Cae ee etn 
1. Natural and Geiuris ont: 2. Rules; 3. Common 
Gender; 4. Epicene. 
(SEY Be CO ean Aire Al's eine a Peg ace anime sea 
8. Declension . . Gere ce 
1. Declensions ; 2. Rules: 8. ‘Gasomndiies 


Nouns. 


9. First Declension . . gmP ices 
1. Gender; 2. Case Forms 8. Gieck icuisak 
10. Second Declension 


1. Nominative; 2. Sie in ro=; 3. Gender 4. Case 
Forms; 5, 6. Nouns in er; 7. Greek Nouns. 


11. Third Declension .. 


I. Vowel Stems. —1. Stems: 2. Noritintive’ 3. Cand 
Forms; 4. Greek Nouns. 


If. Liquid Stems. . . F 


Ill. Mute Stems. — 1. Labial ; 2. Lingual; 3. Palatal; 
4. Peculiar Forms; 6. Greek Nouns 


IV. Rules of Gender. —1. Nominative ee 2. Bichon: 
%. Classified List .<. 2... Me Sit ah 


ONO OH 


xli CONTENTS. 
SECT. 
2 BYE LPOIGNSION ods pore ee eae xk yee Uw ele ae" 


13. 
14. 


15. 


16. 


a ty & 


18. 


19. 
20. 
21. 


22. 


23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 


28. 


29. 
30. 


31. 
32. 
33. 


PtH SICCIONSION | coo etic a ses Uae! Hew d “6 foe hess 

Irregular Nouns . . ee gs Cane Tak ee 
1. Defective; 2. Wadlabie 

Proper Names ys 2 6." a eh tee ee 6 wee: 


ADJECTIVES. 
Inflection . . 


1. Of the 1st and od Pecleasian 9. Of 3d ocinasten: 
3. Consonant Stems, Gas ara 


Comparison . 


1. Regular; 2. heciatey? 3. Defective: oy imdeaiha: 
5. Signification. 


Numerals”. oS 42 cline Seats exe aie ine 


1. Cardinal and Ordinal ; 2. Distributives; 3. Numeral 
Adverbs; 4. Multiplicatives. 


PRONOUNS. 
Personal and TOnSRIVe ce oe oe eee is nee. as oe 
Demonstrative. . . pita? Fa 
Relative, Interrogative, sa Indefinite Si yey 
1. Case-Forms; 2. Compounds. 
PRGP EVR 5 5g) ag & ROR Ne Pee ce oe 


VERBS. 
TEMES Ste Sig tg hg ug orgs Sule tie = Secon Tap tete 
SMTA E Coa ie hia) we ket ee ee eee, pe 
et PN ENS ag Maer oie eR Mea ohh ins Apel 
Gerund and Supine 
Tenses .. eee peng 5% 


1. Classification ; 2. Aicariae' 8. Perfect and hae 
fect; 4. Passive Tenses; 5. Stems. 


Verb Forms .. 


1. Personal Rings: 2. Chanecs of Rises: 3. Verb- 
Endings. 


Hase and its Compounds «...... 0 6:6. s) 2 os. aie 
Conjugation 


1. First Coriugatian 2. Sancti Pauhcgeee : 3. Third 
Conjugation; 4. Fourth Conjugation; 5. Principal 
Parts; 6. Special Forms; 7. Parallel Forms. 

First Conjugation . GT At \caphay eacla Wt aires Bate 1a Gs 8 Pha 


Second Conjugation . 
Third Conjugation . 
1. Regular; 2. Verbs in io; 3, Treats PoniueaGon , 


PAGE. 


28 
29 
30 


32 


33 


38 


41 


44 
45 
47 


49 


50 
51 
51 
52 
52 


o4 


57 
60 


66 
68 
70 
72 


CONTENTS. 


SEOT. 


34. 


35. 


36. 
37. 
38. 
39. 
40. 


41. 


42. 


43. 


45. 


46. 


47. 


48. 


49. 


50. 


Wourth Compan vars a 6 eee eee 
Deponent Verbs . .. .- fa Fa es are AR Bertola 
1. Conjugation; 2. Semi- rie hansitte: 

TRIPE V OFOO = ig | aie a is es a ee ee 
RESOROIBE VOOR 6g Fr Pe 0 a 8K Se 
Defective Verbs. esis el ye ee 

RISO ADBAL VW CTOS Woe 8 Eee 
Poripnraginc Forms: 660 ee es ee ee 


PARTICLES. 
BAVOr ee 6s ee pibhe © 6car wee we 5S so Pan tg 
‘1. Derivation; 2. Classification : 3. Signification. 
Prepositions ° ‘ 
1. With Cases; 2. Meaning id Hse: Measles: 8. Hi 
Compounds. 
Conjunctions. . . of ak eds eines 
1. Classification; 2. Classified int 3. Special Meaning. 
. Derivation of Words. . . . cee 
1. Noun Forms; 2. Derivation of Waite’ 3. Sounsend 
Words. 
PART II.—SYNTAX. 
Definitions . . . . Seo) wed wt etyteh! ote 


1. Sentence; 2. Subject ae Prodicate’ 3. Modification ; 
4. Phrase ; 5. Clause; 6. Connectives ; a Agree- 
ment; 8. Government. 


1. SuBJECT AND PREDICATE.. 


OF NOUNS v.00. « site lh tau a 
1. Appositive; 2. Predicate: Nominative: 
Of Adjectives . . : ane or ak 
1. Number; 2. iden 3. ‘a ae 4. Use of Neu- 
ter; 5. Possessives ; 6. As Adverbs; 7. Compari- 
son; 8. Superlatives of Place; 9. ne 
Of Relatives ... ; 


1. Person of Verb; 2. Wahdee: 3. Niltecodont: ig As 
Connective ; 5. Adverbs. 


Verbs: Rules of Agreement . . . . ‘ 
1. Plural with Collectives, &c.; 2. Noutitative Subject. 


2. CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. 
Genitive . 


1. Subjective, 114; 2. Partitive, 115: 8. Objective, 117; 
4. After Verbs, 119. 


82 


101 


103 


105 


109 


112 


113 


xiv CONTENTS. 


SECT. 
51. Dative e e e . e . e e e ry . 
1. With Teshittives: 121: 2. With Intransitives, 122; 
3. Of Possession, 126 ; 4. Of Agency, 127; 5. Of 
Service, 128; 6. Of Nearness, tb ee & Of Refer- 
ence, 129; ; (Ethical Dative, 180). 
52. Accusative). . . . , 
1. General Use ( Coane Apiusaties, 131): : 2. Two hat 
cusatives; 3. Adverbial; 4. Special Uses. 
a OCRLIVO So ee bw 4 fy ow 80 
54. Ablative . 


1. Of Beuerition; 135; 2. Of Binivee, 136; ‘8. Of Cine: 
187; 4. Of Agent, 138; 5. Of Comparison, 188; 
6. Of Means, 139; 7. Of Quality, 141; 8. Of Price, 
141; 9. Of Specification, 142; 10. Locative: Abla- 
tive Absolute, 142. 


55. Time and Place .. . a 
1. Time; 2. Space; 3. Place (Locative Form, 145) ; : 
4. Way by which. 
56. Use of Prepositions: 2° ls ee ee ee 


8. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 
_57. Use of Moods. . . . co Sais al 


1. Indicative; 2. Sulijunative Hodapandent or Depeul: 
ent; 38. Hortatory; 4. Optative; 5. Concessive ; 
6. Dubitative) ; 7. Imperative; 8. Infinitive (Com- 
plementary, 154; With Subject-Accusative, 155 ; 
Historical, 156). ; 


58. Use of Tenses. . . ; erecta" ee? ase 
1. Indicative; 2. ‘Present ( éonaive: 157 ; Historical, 
158); 8. Imperfect; 4. Future; 5. Perfect ; 6. Plu- 
perfect; 7. Future-Perfect ; 8. Epistolary Tenses ; 
9. Of Subjunctive ; 10. Sequence of Tenses (Primary 
and Secondary, 162) ; ; 11. Of Infinitive. 
59. Conditional Sentences . . : ol eps it 
1. Protasis and Apodosis; 2. Partiedlar Me General Con: 


ditions; 3. Present and Past Conditions; 4. Future 
Conditions; 5. General Conditions. 


60. Implied Conditions 
1. Condition Disguised ; 2. Condition Omitted. 


61. Conditional Particles. . . . slp ee SPR EtG ig 
1. Comparative ; 2. Concessive ; 8. Provisory ; 4. Mean- 
ing and Use. 


62. Relations of Time 


1. Use as in Protasis; 2. xtaohitte tia Relative Time, 
(Cum temporal, 178 ; causal, 180). 


63. Cause or Reason . . ‘ 
1. With Indicative; 2. With Subjunelive: 


PAGE. 


121 


131 


134 
134 


157 


166 


181 


CONTENTS. xV 


SECT. PAGE. 
64. Purpose (Final Clauses) , . . pew Bht ec eee 
1. Relatives or Conjunctions ; 2. Forms. 
65. Consequence or Result (Consecutive Clauses). . . . 183 
1. Subjunctive with ut (ne); 2. Of Characteristic. 
66. Intermediate Clauses . Series eae 
1. Subjunctive of Citation ; 2. Dependent Clauses. 
67. Indirect Discourse . 187 
1. Indirect Narrative (Subject-Accusative, Relative Clau- 
ses, Conditional Sentences, Questions), 188; 2. In- 
direct Questions, 190; 3. Indirect Commands, 191. 
Ge Ny nee Gn. Commanns 602 ois. eae hel pa. ee at ee 
69. Relative Clauses (Classification of) . . . . . . . 193 
TO.; BuDstATVIVe C nbgee oo ek eee ee oe tee kee 
1. Classification; 2. Accusative and Infinitive, 194; 
8. Clauses of Purpose, 195; 4. Clauses of Result, 
197; 5. Indicative with quod, 199. 
71. Questions . ge} 
1: Interrogative Particles ; 2, Double Questions ; 3. Ques- 
tion and Answer. 
72. Participles . . 202 
1. Distinctions of Tense ; 2. “Adjective use; 3. " Predi- 
cate use; 4. Future eas ; 5. Gerundive. 
73. Gerund and Gerundive . . 206 
1. Gerund; 2. Gerundive; 3. Construction of Cases. 
74. Supine... Oat aetna ene we asciele ait eee 
75. General Rules of ie sence: Ove ayes a ERO oe ame 
76. Arrangement . . . 212 
1. Normal Order ; 2. fachasix: 3. Sivuctate (Periodic). 
PART III.— PROSODY. 

RR ge heels, al cone yee nS ety oe Aaa 
78. Rules of Quantity. 215 
1. General Rules; 2. Final Syllables ; : 3. Penultimate 

Syllables (Increment of Nouns and Verbs). 
Me Obs G8 6 SE RO pa apa gic eer ay eee 
Be CAD a era pe lelioek Ser ea ve eee 
CG ik ae Gh ig iat ge Wo a pe RP OE gta Tie Oe ee 
as FOr OF NCPR ry ee erie sn oe he es ee eee 
SPORE A TONDO eo ghee a 8 ee hehe et ee eee 
ee Ue OF PUN 0 ore eae ah elit len Zon 
Ree OMOTCN OF VAIUGS 6 ea. el a Sele oi eee 8) eee 


Lets 2 aU each? ope rt Ma eat ac awe | 


EIN ie AS adh hah gg hes Gg oc... ican. 


ies 
es, 
Aen sn 
bth al 4 
- 





LATIN GRAMMAKL. 





PART FIRST. 


FORMS OF WORDS (ETYMOLOGY). 


1. ALPHABET. 


Tue Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, 
wanting. W. 


Norr.— The letter w is found, however, in many modern Latin 
words, especially proper names. 


1. Classification. — The letters of the alphabet are 


classified as follows : — 

a. VoweELS (litterae vocales, or voice-letters) : a, e, i, 0, u, y. 
The following are Diphthongs (double-vowels): ae (@), au, eu, 
oe (ce), ei, ui 

b. Consonants (litterae consonantes, i.e., sounding-with the 
vowels) : — 

Mutss: Labial surd p sonant b spirant fv) nasal m 
Lingual ,, t dex, oe a {th} uP n 
Palatal ,, c(%),a 558 5 Dis fi Poy bite 
Double Consonants, x (ces), z (ds). 

Liquips: 1, m, n, r.— Sreiuants: surd s, sonant z. 

The letters i (j) and u (v) at the beginning of a syllable be- 
fore a vowel, also u in quis, suadeo, &c., are SEMI-VOWELS. 

The consonants f, g, p, z, are never used at the end of a word. 

Notre.—The Aspirate (or breathing) h follows in inflection the 
rule of palatals; and was originally, in many words, a harsh guttural 
(kh), like the Greek x, or the Spanish j. Its later sound was very 
slight, and in most languages derived from Latin has quite disappeared. 


Sometimes, as in aheneus (= aéneus), it seems to be used only to 
separate two vowels. It is not reckoned as a consonant in Prosody. 


ce 
€ 
€ 


% « © ©) 
© «£ 
€> , 


2 EARLY, FORMS. — CHANGES. [1: 2, 3 
Be we fe cose ; ee ; 

2. Early Forms. —The alphabét in the time of Cicero 
(N. D. ii. 87) consisted of “one and twenty letters.” These 
were, — 

abedefghikimnuinogpgans tu = 


y and z were added, in words derived from Greek. _i and u, 
when used as consonants (‘‘ semi-vowels”), having the sound of 
y and w, are generally written j and v: as, juvenis for iuuenis. 





a. In early use, c was not distinguished in form or sound from 
g. After the distinction was made, C was still used, convention- 
ally, as the initial of names (Gaius, Gnaeus) beginning ee 
with G. It came, in later use, to take the place of k, which was 
retained only in abbreviations, or as the initial letter of a few 
words, as Kalendae, Karthago, in which it is followed by a. 


b. Till after the age of Augustus, u was never, in good use, 
preceded in the same ssllable by u or v. In many words, as in 
volt, servos, o was written where later custom allows u; while 
ce was regularly used for qu in such words as cum (four quum), 
ecus (for equus), relicus (for reliquus), locuntur (for lo- 
quuntur), and the like; also in cotidie (for quotidie), and 
a few other words. The old forms quom (for cum) and quor 
(for cur) are also found. 


c. At the end of a few words,—as sed, apud, illud, — 
t was anciently written instead of a. In words ending in -s, 
final s was often elided (Cic. Orat. 48), as in qualist (qualis-est) ; 
plenu’ fidei (Senect. 1). 


3. Changes.— Letters are often changed, according to 
general laws of inflection (vowel-increase), or to secure an 
easier or smoother sound (euphonic change); or have been 
altered or lost through long use (phonetic decay). Of such 
changes are the following: — 


a. Vowels are strengthened in inflection and derivation (vowel- 
increase): as, ago, égi (cf. tell, told); disco, ddceo (cf. fall, fell ; 
si, set); pendo, pondus; persdéno, persGna; perfidus, fidus, 
foedus (cf. bind, band). 


Norte. — The primitive vowel-sound may be assumed to be a, as 
in father. Starting with this, and gradually contracting the padlate, 
we form in succession the sound of e (@) and i (ee), leading to the 
semi-vowel j (y). By contracting the dips, we in like manner form 
the sound of o and u (00), leading to the semi-vowel v (w). By 
contracting both palate and lips, we form the French sound of u,— 
in Greek v, and in Latin y. This, which is 
called the Vowel-Scale, is of great service in ss 
tracing the modifications of vowel-sounds. It . ns 
may be represented thus :— See ies Te: 


L:°3.] EUPHONIC CHANGES. 3 


b. Vowels are weakened by negligent pronunciation for long 
periods of time (phonetic decay). ‘Thus, on one side of the scale, 
a becomes e, then i; or, on the other, becomes o, then u; while 
u and i meet in the French u (y): as, agmen, agminis; fa&cio, 
conficio, confectum; sdlio, exsulto; sepélio, sepultus; ebur, 
eboéris; maxtimus, maximus (cf. master, misler, mistress). 


c. Two vowels coming together are contracted into a single 
sound: as, Obit (obiit), cogo (co-ago), nil (nihil), debeo (de- 
hibeo), coetus (coitus), ingeni (cf. mayhem, maim). 

d. The semi-vowels j and v are lost before a vowel, contrac- 
tion sometimes also taking place: as, Sbicit (Sbjicit), cdnicit 
(conjicit), cunctus (conjunctus), rursus (reversus), contio 
(conventio), mo6tum (mévitum). 


e. Between two vowels, or before m or n, 8 becomes r: as, 
genus, generis; maereo, maestus; veternus (vetus-nus), 
carmen (casmen), dirimo (dis-imo), diribeo (dis-habeo), 


f. When two consonants come together by derivation, inflec- 
tion, or composition, an easier pronunciation is secured thus : — 


1. The first is entirely assimilated to the second. Thus, a liquid, 
—m, n, or (less frequently) r— before another liquid is changed to 
that liquid [but r is not changed to m or n]|: as, collego (con-/leqo), 
corrtgo (com-régo), illudo (in-ludo), illtco (in léco), intellégo (inter-/égo), 
asellus (asin{u|lus). So d before 1: as in lapillus (dapidulus) ; and b 
(rarely) before a liquid: as, summitto (submitto). 

2. The former is assimilated in kind. Thus:—a. A sonant before a 
-—surd becomes surd: as, tego, teri (xcs), tectum ; nubo, nupsi, nuptum ; 
coquo, coxt, coctum. — b. A surd before a sonant becomes sonant, as in 
segmentum (seco).—ce. A labial nasal before a dentai mute sometimes 
becomes dental: contendo (com-tendo), jandudum ( jam dudum), quantus 
(quamtus).—d. A dental nasal before a labial sometimes becomes labial: 
as, tmpono (in-pono).—e. d and t before t sometimes become s (see 4) : 
as, equester (equet-ter), est (edt). 

3. The former is lost, having probably been first assimilated. 
Thus :—a. d and t are lost before s, but sometimes only assimilated : 
as, pedes (pedets), vas (vads, vadis), esse (edse, edo).—b. ¢ and g are 
lost before t and s when I or r precedes: as, sartus (=-sarctus, sar-~ 
cio), mulsi (=mulgsi, mulgeo), indultus (=indulgtus, indulgeo). —c. ¢ and g 
are sometimes lost before m and mn: as, exdmen (exugmen), luna (luc. 
na), lumen (luc-men). 


4. The second is partially assimilated to the first (as in English 
wrecked becomes, in pronouncing, reckt); in this case both are often 
changed. Thus, after n and 1—rarely after other letters—t be- 
comes s (the continued sound corresponding to the explosive t): as, 
mansus (=mantus, maneo), pulsus (pello), casus (cado), passus (=pattus, 
patior), sparsus (=spargtus, spargo), tensus (tendo, but also tentus), fixus 
( figo, but jfictus from jfingo), maximus (for mag-timus), lapsus (labor), 
passus (pando). 


Norr. — After m, before s or t, p is inserted for euphony: as, 
sumo, sumpsi, sumptum. So hiemps for hiems. 


4 ASSIMILATION. — VARIATIONS. fe See 


g. Especially the final consonant of prepositions was assimilated 
to the initial consonant of verbs. 


Thus, ad is assimilated before ¢, g, p, t; less regularly before 
1, r, s, and rarely before m; while before f, n, q,.the form ad is 
to be preferred ; —ab is not assimilated, but may take the form a, 
au, or abs;—in com (con, co), m is retained before b, p, m; is 
assimilated before 1, n, r; is changed to n before c, d, f, g, i, q, 
s, Vv; varies between m and n before p; is sometimes assimilated 
(otherwise n) before r andl; and loses the final m in conecto, co. 
niveo, conitor, conubium ;—in usually changes n to m before b, m, 
p; before 1 the better orthography retains n ;—ob and sub are 
assimilated before ec, f, g, p, and sometimes before m; sub also 
before r; and, in early Latin, b of these prepositions sometimes 
becomes p before s or t. The inseparable amb loses b before a 
consonant, and m is sometimes assimilated ; — circum loses m before 
i (often); —s of dis before a vowel becomes r, and before a conso- 
nant is lost or assimilated ;—the d of red and sed is generally lost 
before a consonant. 


Norre.—In most of these cases the later editions prefer the 
unaltered forms throughout; but the changes given above have good 
authority. Others, which are corruptions of the middle ages (as 
assum for adsum), would better be avoided. 


h. The combinations ci and ti before a vowel are found inter- 
changed in many words: as in nuntius or nuncius; contio or con- 
cio; but in these cases only one.is correct: as, contio, dicio. 


Notrrt.— The substitution of ¢ for t is an example of phonetic 
decay, and belongs to a later period of the language. In Italian, z, 
and in Spanish, c, has regularly taken the place of t in such combi- 
nations: as in nazione, nacion. The sound of s (assibilation) or of sh 
traceable in them led gradually to the adoption of this as the regular 
sound of c before e or i. 


4. The aspirate h is occasionally ysed to indicate the hard 
sound of c, asin pulcher for pulcer. Many words are written 
sometimes with and sometimes without an initial h: as, arena 
or harena, ariolor or hariolor, erus or herus. The combina- 
tions ph, th, are found only in words taken from the Greek. 


k. The following words are variously spelt in different editions, 
inferior or rejected forms being marked + : — 


Adolescens, adulescens ; ancora, tanchora; annulus, anulus; arctus, 
arius ; coecus, cecus ; celum, celum; ceruleus, ceruleus ; causa, caussa ; 
ceespes, cespes ; ceteri, | ceteri ; cena, cena, cena ; condicio, t conditio ; con- 
junx, tconjux ; contio, t concio; dicio, } ditio; dumtaxat, duntaxat ; epi- 
stola, epistula ; eumdem, eundem ; exsisto, existo (and other compounds 
of ex before s); femina, t femina; fenus, feenus, fenus ; heres, t heres ; 
hedus, t hedus ; hiems(ps), + hyems ; tdcirco, + iccirco ; immo, imo ; inclutus, 
t inclytus ; intellego, intelligo ; lacrima, + lacryma ; litera, littera; litus, ¢ lit- 
tus ; lubet, libet ; meror, meror; milia, ¢ millia ; multa, mulcta ; } ne, ne; 
nequidquam, nequiquam ; numquam, nunquam; + nuncio, nuntio; paullus, 
paulus ; quicquid, quidquid ; religio, relligio ; retuli, rettuli; silva, t sylva; 


a Bi] ALPHABET. — PRONUNCIATION. i) 


solennis, solemnis ; solers, sollers; sulfur, {sulphur ; tamquam, tanquam; 
thesaurus, thensaurus; thus, tus; tiro, } tyro; umquam, unquam ; ungo, 
unguo; verto, vorto; also, the gerund-forms -endus or -wndus; and the 
superlative -imus or -umus. 


Nore. — Many of the above variations are due to the practice of 
writing from dictation, or by the ear, by which most MS. copies of 
the classics were made, —a single reader often dictating to numerous 
copyists, whose spelling was often corrupt, and without authority. 


4. Combinations. — Two words are often united in 
writing, and sometimes in sound. 


a. Conjunctions or other particles are thus connected: as in 
etenim, jamdiu, siquis, and siquidem. 


So the adverbial combinations quare, quamobrem, &c., as in 
English nevertheless, notwithstanding. 


b.. The verb est, is, is joined with the preceding word, 
especially in the old poets, or when the two would be united by 
elision: as, homost, periculumst. 


c. Similar contractions are found in vin’ (visne), scin’ (scis- 
ne), sis (si vis), sodes (si audes), as in English, don’t, won’t. 

5. Syllables. — In the division of syllables, a single con- 
sonant between two vowels is to be written with the latter. 


a. This rule is usually extended to double consonants, or any 
combination of consonants which can be used to begin a word: as, 
ho-spes, ma-gnus, di-xit. 


b. In compounds, the parts should be separated: as, ab-est, 
ob-latus. 


Notes. — Custom allows many other departures from the rule. 


c. A syllable preceded by a vowel in the same word is called 
pure ; when preceded by a consonant, impure. | 


d. An initial syllable ending, or a final syllable beginning, with 
a vowel, is called open; otherwise, it is called close. 


2. PRONUNCIATION. 


1. Roman. — The Roman pronunciation of the Vowels 
was, no doubt, nearly like the Italian; which, with little 
variation, is that found in most of the continental languages 
of Europe. That of some of the Consonants is more uncer- 
tain. In the system of pronunciation founded on ancient 


6 PRONUNCIATION. — QUANTITY. ([2:2. 3:1. 


use, the long and short vowels are sounded respectively as 
follows : — 


a as in father. a as in fast. 
Og, Hem 6 5, me. 
I ,, machine. i, piano. 
Oo ,,  Aoly. 6 ,, wholly. 
i ,, rude (ooinboot), ut ,, full. 


Nortrr.—It is probable that y (also u in maximus, &c.) was simi- 
lar to the French u; it is usually, however, sounded like i. 


a. The final or unaccented open sound of the vowels is nearly 
as in the last syllable of comma, yesterday, pity, hollow, cuckoo. 


b. In Diphthongs, each vowel has its proper sound: thus, ae 
has nearly the sound of ay, au of ow, oe of oy, ui of we. 


c. Of consonants, c and g are always hard, s always sharp; 
j has the sound of y, v of w, and n before palatals of ng; the 
combination bs is like ps, ch like k, and ph like f. 


Nortr.— The sound of the vowels and diphthongs, as above given, 
has been generally adopted in this country. In regard to the conso- 
nants c, g, j, Vv, there is still considerable difference of usage. 


2. Modern. — Modern custom has generally allowed 
Latin to be pronounced in each country according to the 
rules of its own language. What is known as the English 
Method adopts the following : — 


a. The vowels and consonants have the same sound as in 
English. But there are no silent letters (except in scanning verse, 
by the usage called Elision) ; such words as dies, mare, audiere, 
pauperiéi, having each as many syllables as vowels or diphthongs. 





6. By American custom, final a is pronounced in the Italian 
way, as in comma. But in the monosyllables a, da, sta, qua, 
some persons retain the English sound. 


c. The diphthongs ae, oe, are pronounced like ee; au like aw; 
eu like ew; ei and ui like 7 in kite; es and (in plural words) os 
at the end of a word, as in the English disease, morose. 


ad. The consonants c and g are made soft (like s and j) 
before e, i, y, ae, oe, eu; ch is always hard, as in chasm. 


3. QUANTITY. 


1. Quantity is the relative time occupied in pronouncing a 
syllable, — a long syllable being equal to two short ones. 


Xe ee QUANTITY. — ACCENT. 7 


Norr.—The distinction of Quantity was carefully observed 
by the ancients, but came to be almost wholly disregarded in 
later times except in the composition of Latin verse. 

2. Some of the most general rules of quantity are the fol- 
lowing : — | 

a. A vowel before another vowel is short: as in via, nihil. 

b. A diphthong is long: as in aedes, foedus. 

c. A syllable formed by contraction is long: as, mi (mihi) ; 
nil (nihil); intrarat (intraverat); némo (né hdmo). 

Norr. —In many text-books and old editions, contraction is de- 
noted by a circumflex : as, mi, intrarat. 


d. A syllable in which a vowel is followed by two consonants, 
or a double consonant, is long: as in réctus, duxit. Sometimes 
the vowel itself is made long, as before ns in praeséns. 


é. A syllable in which a short vowel is followed by a mute with 
1 or r is common, — that is, it may be long in verse: as, alacris. 


REMARK. — Many final syllables, originally long, are always found 
short in classic Latin: for example, the stem-vowel a of the first 
declension. 


Norte. — The sign (~) denotes that a vowel is long; (~) that it is 
short; (*) that it is common. 


For particular rules of Quantity, see § 78. 


4, AccENT. 


I. The accent of Latin words never falls on the final 
syllable, but is confined to one of the two preceding. 


2. The following are general rules of accent : — 


a. Words of two syllables are always accented on the first 
syllable: as, €’rant, they were; diés, day. 


b. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the 
Penult, if that is long: as, 4mi’cus, frivnd ; if it is short or com- 
mon, then on the Antepenult: as, d6’minus, @’lacris. 


Notr.— The Penult is the last syllable but one; the Antepenult, 
the last but two. 


c. When an Enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on 
the syllable next before the enclitic, whether long or short: as, 
déa’que, Amaré’ve, tibi’ne, ita’que, and so, as distinguished 
from i‘taque, therefore. 


8 ACCENT. — INFLECTION. [5 1, 2 


Norr. — The acute accent (*) is sometimes used to denote stress of 
voice; the grave (), to mark an adverb or conjunction; the circumflex 
(*), the ablative in a, the perfect in Gre, ora contracted syllable. 


j 


5, INFLECTION. 


1. Inflection is a change made in the form of a word, to 
show its grammatical relations. | 


a. Changes of inflection sometimes take place in the body of a 
word, but oftener in its termination: as, VOX, a voice; vOcis, of 
a voice; vdco, I call; vicat, he calls; vocavit, he has called. 


b. Terminations of inflection had originally an independent 
meaning, and ltl ii nearly to the use of prepositions or per- 
sonal pronouns in inglish ; thus, in vdcat, the termination is 
equivalent to he or she; and in vOcis, to the preposition of. 


c. Changes of inflection in the body of a verb usually denote 
relations of time or manner, and correspond to the use of auxiliary 


verbs in English: thus, in frangit (root frag-), he breaks or is 


breaking, the form of the word indicates Present time or continued 
action; while in frégit, he broke or has broken, it indicates Past time 
or Completed action. 


2. The body of a word, to which the terminations are 
attached, is called the STEM. 


a. The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations ; 


but, in general, it cannot be used without some termination to 


express these. Thus the stem vGc- denotes voice ; with -s added 
it becomes vox, a voice or the voice, as the subject or agent of an 
action; with -is it becomes vGcis, and signifies of a voice. 


6. A still more primitive form, expressing the main idea less 
definitely, and common also to other words, either in the same or 
other languages, is called a Root. For example, the root sta is 
found in the Sanskrit tisthédmi, Greek icrnu, Latin sistere and 
stare, German stehen, and English stand. 

Again, the root of the stem vGc- is vic, which means not to 
call, or I call, or calling, but merely call; and cannot be used to 
mean any thing without terminations. With a it becomes vica-, 
the stem of the present vécamus, we call; with avi- it is the 
stem of the perfect vécavi, J called; with ato- it becomes the 
stem of the participle vocatus, called; with ation- it becomes 
the stem of vocationis, of a calling. With its vowel lengthened 
it becomes the stem of vox, a voice (that by which we call) ; with 
alis added it means belonging to a voice; with tila, a little voice. 


S535 ge Get.) INFLECTION. — GENDER. 9 


Nort. — Thus, in inflected languages, words are built up from 
Roots, which at a very early time, long before Latin was a distinct 
language, were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in 
Chinese. Roots are modified into Stems, which, by inflection, 
become Words. The process by which they are modified, in the vari- 
ous forms of derivatives and compounds, is called Stem-building. 


c. The Stem is sometimes the same with the Root: as in 
dtic-is, fer-t; but is more frequently formed from the root, 
either (1) by changing or lengthening its vowel, as in rég-is, 
duc-o; (2) by the addition or insertion of a consonant, as in 
tendo, pango; (3) by the addition of a terminal vowel, as in 
fugis, fuga; or (4) by derivation and composition, following the 
laws of development peculiar to the language. 


d. The terminations of inflection are variously modified by 
combining with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, leading 
to the yarious forms of Declension and Conjugation. 


Notrt.— A termination beginning with a vowel is called an open 
affix; one beginning with a consonant, a close affiz. When a close 
affix is joined to a consonant-stem, there is usually either a euphonic 
change, as rexi for reg-si, or a vowel appears, as reg-i-bus. But in most 
cases, what is called a connecting vowel really belongs to the stem, 
as in voca-mus, regi-mus. 

3. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Participles have in- 
flections of declension, to denote gender, number, and case; 
and Verbs of conjugation, to denote voice, mood, tense, num- 


ber, and person. 


4. Those parts of speech which are not inflected are called 
ParTICLEs: these are Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Inter- 
jections, with Adverbs of time, place, and manner. 


Nore. — The term Particles is sometimes limited to such words as 
num, =ne, an (interrogative), non, ne (negative), si (conditional), &c., 
which are used simply to indicate the form or construction of a sen- 
tence. Interjections are not properly to be classed among parts of _ 
speech, and differ little from inarticulate sounds. For convenience, 
a list is given of those in most common use, following the conjunc- 
tions (p. 95). 


6. GENDER 
i. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or gram- 


matical. 


a. Natural gender is distinction as to the sex of the object 
denoted: as, puer, boy ; puelss girl; donum, gift. 


10 GENDER. (6:4, 2% 


6. Many masculine nouns have a corresponding feminine form: 
as, servus, serva, slave; cliens, clienta, client; victor, vic- 
trix, conqueror. Most designations of persons (as, nauta, sailor, 
miles, soldier), usually though not necessarily male, are masculine. 


c. Grammatical gender is a like distinction where no sex 
exists in the object, and is shown by the form of the adjective 
joined with it: as, lapis magnus (M.), @ great stone; manus 
mea (F.), my hand. 


_ a. A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belong- 

ing to a. class: as, mancipium tuum, your slave. Names of classes 
or bodies of persons may be of either gender: as, exercitus (M.), 
acies (r.), and agmen (N.), army; and the feminine operae, 
workmen, copiae, troops. 

Note. — What we call grammatical gender is in most cases the 
product of the imagination at a rude age, when language was in the 
course of growth. Thus a River was seen, or a Wind was felt, as a 
living creature, violent and strong, and so is masculine; a Month is a 
guide or divider of tasks, and so is masculine; and the fable of Atlas 
shows how similar living attributes were ascribed to Mountains, 
which, in the northern fables, are the bones of giants. Again, the 
Earth, or a country or city, seems the mother of its progeny; the Tree 
shelters and ripens its fruit, as a brooding bird hernest of eggs ; and, 
to this day, a Ship is always referred to by a feminine pronoun. 

Again, in the East and South, the Sun, from its fierce heat and 
splendor, is masculine, and its paler attendant, the Moon, feminine ; 
while, among northern nations, the Sun (perhaps for its comforting 
warmth) is feminine, and the Moon (the appointer of works and 
days) masculine. The rules of grammatical gender only repeat and 
extend these early workings of the fancy. 


2. Names of Male beings, together with Rivers, Winds, 
and Mountains are masculine; names of Female beings, 
Cities, Countries, Plants, of many Animals (especially Birds), 
and of most abstract Qualities, are feminine. 

Notre. — Most of the above may be recognized by their termina- 
tions, according to the rules of gender under the several declensions. 

a. Names of Rivers are masculine, except a few, chiefly in a. 

These are Albula, Allia, Druentia, Duria, Garumna, Matréna, Mo- 
sella; also Lethe and Styx. Many are variable. 


Norse. — Names of Months are properly Adjectives, the masculine 
noun mensis being understood. 


6. Names of Towns, Islands, and Trees in us are feminine; 
also, many names of Plants and Gems in us. 


c. Indeclinable nouns, Terms or Phrases used as nouns, and 
‘words quoted merely for their forms, are neuter: as, nihil, nothing ; 
gummi, gum; scire tuum, your knowing ; triste vale, a sad fare- 
well; hoc ipsum diu, this same word diu; hoc totum diserte 
dicere (De Or. ii. 10), this whole matter of eloquent speaking. 


G2 4.'"7.] . GENDER. — CASE. 11 


a 
7 


3. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, 
according. to the sex of the object. These are said to be of 
Common GENDER: as, exsul, exile; bos, ox or cow. 


Notre. — When a noun signifying a thing without life is both mas- 
culine and feminine, — as, dies, day ; finis, end, — it is sometimes said 
to be of Doubtful Gender. 


~ 4, A few names of animals are always connected with 
adjectives of the same gender, either masculine or feminine, 
independent of sex. They are called Ericens. 


Thus lepus, hare, is always masculine, and vulpes, for, feminine. 
To denote a male fox we may say, vulpes mascula; or a jemale 
hare, lepus femina. 


7. CASE. 


There are in Latin six Cases, which express the 
relations of nouns to other words. They are usually 
put in the following order: 1. Nominative; 2. Gen- 
itive; 3. Dative; 4. Accusative; 5. Vocative; 6. Ab- 
lative. 

1. The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a propo- 
sition: as, 
pater meus adest, my father is here. 

2. The Genitive (of) is used like the English posses- 
sive ; also with many adjectives and verbs, especially those of 
memory or feeling: as, 
patris ejus amicus miserétur mei, his father’s friend pities me. 

3. The Dative (¢o or for) is the case of the Indirect 
Object, and is used to denote the person whose interest is 
concerned : as, 


dedit mihi cultellum: magno mihi usui erat, he gave me a 
pocket-knife : ut was of great service to me. 


4. The AccusaTIvE (objective) is the case of the Direct 
Object, and is used after most prepositions: as, 


pater me ad se vocavit et in hortum duxit, [my] father 
called me to him, and led me into the garden. 


12 CASE. — DECLENSION. 7. 83 


5. The VocartIvE is used in address: as, 
huc véni, care mi filidle, come here, my dear litile son. 

Notse.— As the Vocative is independent of the other words ina 
sentence, it is by some grammarians not reckoned as a Case. 

6. The AsiaTive (by, from, with) is used with many 
verbs and prepositions, especially to denote separation or 
instrument: as, 


in horto ludebamus, et cultello me laesit, we were playing in 
the garden, and he hurt me with a knife. 


Nortr. — All, excepting the nominative and vocative, are by the 
ancient grammarians called “‘ Oblique Cases.” 

7. In names of towns and a few other words appear traces 
of another case (the LocaTIveE), denoting the place where, — 
generally the same in form as the dative (§ 55. 3. ¢.): as, 


Romae vel AthGénis esse velim, J should like to be at Rome 
or Athens. : F 


8. DECLENSION. 


1. There are five Declensions, or modes of declining nouns. 
They are distinguished by the termination of the Genitive 
Singular, and by the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem. 


Dect. 1. Gen. Sing. ae Characteristic 4 (anciently a) 


eta’ ® a2 i (ius) Ge re) 
=a ¥ i is m { or a Consonant 
ae %. Us (uis) ,, ti 
99 5. 99 6i 39 é 


a. The stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant-stem, by 
omitting the case-ending; if a vowel-stem, by substituting for 
the case-ending the characteristic vowel. 


Notr.— For the division of vowel and consonant-stems in the 
Third Declension, see § 11. 


6b. The Nominative of most masculine and feminine nouns 
(except in the first declension) is formed from the Stem by adding s. 


Nore 1.— Many, however, end in 0, or in the liquids 1, n, r,— 
the original s (sometimes with the final letter also) having been lost 
through phonetic decay. In some (as in jfilius) the stem-vowel is 
modified before the final s; and in some, as in ager, a yowel is 
inserted in the stem. 


8: 2, 3] . DECLENSION. : 13 


Note 2.— The s of the nominative is the remnant of an old 
demonstrative sa, which is found (with modifications) in the Sanskrit 
personal pronoun, in the Greek article, and in the English she. 


2. The following are general Rules of Declension : — 
a. The Vocative is always the same with the Nominative, ex- 
cept in the singular of nouns in us of the second declension, 


Norr.—In the first and second declensions the vocative ends in 
the (modified) stem-vowel. Most of the words likely to be used in 
address are of this form; and, in practice, few other words have a 
vocative. 


b. In Neuters, the nominative and accusative are always alike, 
and in the plural end in @. 


c. Except in some neuters, the accusative singular always ends 
in m, and the accusative plural i in 8. 


d. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the 
others) the dative singular ends in i. 


e. The dative and ablative plural are always alike. 

f. The genitive plural always ends in um. 

3. Case-Endings. The original terminations of the 
Cases, in Latin, were probably the following : — 


Sing. M., F. N. Plur. M., F. N. 
Nom. s(orlost) m, —- es a 
Gen. os (is) um, rum(sum) 
Dat. i ibus 
Acc. mem m,- es a 
Abl. ed tbus 


Notr.— These became so worn by use, and so united with the 
stem, that they are distinguishable only in consonant-stems. In some 
instances, one case was substituted for another, or two were merged 
in one. The combinations are given below as case-endings. The name 
“stem” is sometimes, conveniently though incorrectly, given to that 
part of the word —as serve in servus — which precedes the case-ending. 


DECL. I. II. III. IV. Vv. 
Sing. 
N. a é, as, es/US, UM 0S, on eus s - (See p. 23.) tis, G és 
G. & (ai) es i(ius) o,w e y yos, 6s} Us (uis) 6i (e) 
D. & (al) 3 (i) ei, €0 ui (a) éi (e) 
A.am an,en jum on ea bie (im) in,yn & um, a em 
v.a e |6(i) eu (as nom.) %, y¥ tis, a és 
Aa é |6 €0 e(i), i yé u e 
Plur. 
N. Vv. & I & és, a, ia és} Us, ua és 
G. drum (um) |6rum (um, 0m) én/um, ium uum érum 
D. A. Is (a@bus) | is (Obus) ibus ibus(tibus)| é6bus 
A. as os és (is), a, ia as| is, ua é3 














N.B. Rare forms in parenthesis; Greek forms in italics, 


- 


14 NOUNS. — FIRST DECLENSION. [9: -1,-2, 3. 


NOUNS. 





9, First DECLENSION. 


The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends 
in a. Latin nouns have the Nominative like the stem. 


) SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nom. stella, a star. stellae, stars. 
Gen. _ stellae, of a star. stellarum, of stars, 
Dat. stellae, to a star. stellis, to stars. 
Acc. stellam, a@ star. stellas, stars. 
Voc. _ stell&, thou star! stellae, ye stars!” 
Abl. stella with a star. stellis, with stars. 


1. Gender. Most nouns of the first declension are Feminine. 
Nearly all the exceptions are such as are masculine from their sig- 
nification; as, nauta, sailor. Also, Hadria, the Adriatic. 


2. Case Forms.—da. The genitive smgular anciently ended 
in ai, which is occasionally found in a few authors: as, aulai. The 
same ending occurs in the dative, but only as a diphthong. 


_b. There is also an old genitive in 4s, found in the word familias 
used in certain combinations, as, pater (mater, filius, filia) famil- 
ias, father of a family, &c. 


c. The Locative form for the singular ends in ae, and for the 
plural in is: as, Romae, Athénis. 


d. The genitive plural is sometimes found in um instead. of 
arum, especially in compounds with -cdla and -géna, signifying 
dwelling and descent: as, caelicdlum, of the heavenly ones. 


é. The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia, daughter, 
liberta, freed-woman, equa, mare, mula, she-mule, end in an older 
form -abus. But, except when the two sexes (as in wills, &c.) 
are mentioned together, the form in is is also used. 


3. Greek Nouns.—Some Greek nouns (chiefly proper 
names) end in 4s, 6s (M.), and 6 (F.) in the nominative, and an 
or €n in the accusative; those in € have the genitive in 6s 
(stem a or €): as, 
























































comet (M.). laurel (¥.). 
N. cométes (a) daphné 4mnéas Anchises 
G@ cométee daphnés (9) Ziinése nchisse 
D. cométe daphné (#) fiinése nchisse 
Ac. cométen(am) daphnén f@néan (am) nchisén 
Vv. comets — daphné ZEnéa (&) nchisé (&) 
Ab. cométa (é) daphneé (4) A4anéa Anchisé (a) 


10: 1, 2, 3-] SECOND DECLENSION. 15 


Norr.— This form is found only in the singular; the plural is 
regular: as, comete, arum, &c. It includes (besides proper names) 
about thirty-five words, several being names of plants; among others 
the following, those marked ft having also regular forms in a:— 
bule, council ; geometres, geometer ; t grammatice, grammar; harpe, 
sickle; magice, magic; fmusice, music; tode, ode; pandectes, 
repertory ; { patriarches, patriarch; + prophetes, prophet; sophistes, 
sophist ; t tetrarches, tetrarch ; thymele, leader’s-stand ; { tiaras, tiara. 


10. Srconp DEcLENsION. 


The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends 
in 0 (as of vir, viro-, and of servus, servo-). 


Norr.— This form is an original &-stem, to which the 4-stem of 
the first declension is the corresponding feminine. 


1. The Nominative is formed from the Stem by adding 8 
(in neuters m), the characteristic 6 being weakened to tt. 


2. In most nouns whose stem ends in ro-, the § is not 
added, but the 0 is lost, e being inserted before r. 


Thus ager, field (stem agro=), is the same as the Greek daypés. 
The exceptions are, hesperus, humerus, juniperus, morus, numerus, uterus. 


SINGULAR. 
Boy. Book. Slave. Gift. 

Nom. puér . libér — serviis (5s) dasnum 
Gen. ; puéri libri servi doni 
Dat. puérd libro servo dons 
Acc. puérum librtim servum (om) donum 
Voc. puér liber servé donum 
Abl. = puérd libro servG dond 

PLURAL. ; 
Nom. puéri libri servi dona 
Gen. puér6rum _librdrum servorum dondrum 
Dat. puéris libris servis donis 
Acc. puérds librds -  Servds dona 
Voce. puéri libri servi dona 
Abl. _ puéris libris servis donis 


Notr:— The old form os, om (for us, um), is sometimes used 
after u or V: as, servos, servom (§ 1. 2. 0.). 


3. Gender.— Nouns ending in us (08), er, ir, are Mascu- 


line (exe. on p. 16); those ending in um (on) are Neuter. (But 
which stems are M. or N. can only be learned from the Dictionary.) 


16 SECOND DECLENSION. [10: 4, 5, 6. 


a. But names of towns in us (os) are Feminine: as, Corin- 
thus. Also, arctus (os), the Polar Bear; alvus, belly 5 carba- 
sus, linen (plural carbasa, sails, N.); cOlus, distaff; htimus, 
ground; vannus, winnowing-shovel ; with many names of Plants 
and Gems, - 


b. The following are Neuter: pelagus, sea; virus, poison ; 
vulgus (rarely M.), the crowd, ‘Their accusative, as of all neuters, 
is the same as the nominative. 


4&. Case Forms. a. The Locative form for the singular of 
this declension ends in i: as, humi, un the ground ; Corinthi, ai 
Corinth. For the plural, is: as, Philippis, a/ Philippi. 


b. The genitive of nouns in ius or ium ends by earlier use 
with a single i: as, fili, of a son; ingéni, of genius. 

The same contraction occurs with the gen. sing. and the dat. 
and abl. plur. of nouns in aius and @ius: as, Grais, Pompéi. 


c. Proper names in ius lose e in the vocative: as, VergT li; 
also, filius, son, genius, divine guardian ; and the possessive meus, 
my: as, audi, mi fili, hear, my son. 


d. Greek names in ius have the vocative ie; and adjectives 
derived from proper names—as Lacedaemonius —also form 
the vocative in ie. 


e. In the genitive plural, um (or, after v, om) is often found 
for Srum, especially in poets. 


f. Deus, god, has vocative deus; plural, nominative and voc- 
ative dei or di (dii); dative and ablative deis or dis (diis). 

For the genitive plural deorum, divum or divom (from 
divus) is often used. 


%- The following stems in €ro, in which e belongs to the stem, 
retain e throughout: puer, boy; gener, son-in-law; socer, father- 
in-law ; vesper, evening; with compounds in -fer and -ger: as, 
licifer, -féri, light-bringer ; armiger, -géri, armor-bearer. 


a. Vir, man, has the genitive viri; the-adjective satur, sated, 
has satiiri; vesrer has abl. vespere (loc. vesperi), 


b. Liber, a name of Bacchus, also has Lib&ri; so, too, the 
plir. liberi, children. 


6. The following, which insert e, are declined like liber: 
ager, field; aper, boar; arbiter, judge; auster, sowth-wind; 
caper, goat; coluber, snake; conger, sea-eel; culter, knife; 
faber, smith; fiber, beaver ; geometer, geometer ; magister, mas- 
ter ; minister, servant; oleaster, wild-olive; onager (grus), wild- 
ass; scomber (brus), mackerel. 


po ay ‘THIRD DECLENSION. 17 


7. Greek Nouns. a. Many Greek names in eus, as Or- 
pheus (being of the third declension in Greek), have gen. ei 
or eos, dat. ei; acc, ea; voc. eu; abl. eo. 

b. Many in es, belonging to the third declension, have also a 
gen. in i: as, Thucydidi. 

c. Some Greek names in er have a form in us: as, Teucer, 
Teucrus. 

d. About twenty words have the Greek ending 5s (mM. or F.) 
or 6n (N.): as, mythos, i, 0, on, e, 0; plural i, orum, is, os: 
parélion, ii (i), io; plural ia, iorum, iis. " 

Ath6s and Androgeds (/En. vi. 20.) have a gen. in o. 

Argos (N. nom. and acc.) has the plural form Argi, orum, &c, 


ll, Turrp DECLENSION. 


Nouns of the Third Declension are most conveni- 
ently classed according to their Stems, whether ending 
in a vowel, a liquid, or a mute. 


I. VoweEt-StTems. 


I. Vowel-stems of this declension end ini, Thus that of 
turris is turri-; and that of mare, mari-. 


a. Nouns of this class are parisyllabic; that is, the oblique 
cases of the singular have no more syllables than the nominative, 
(For exceptions in al, ar, see 2, c.) 


b. A few stems ending in u-, as of grus, sus, were treated as 
consonant-stems. (See Ill. 4, @.) 


2. The Nominative, except in neuters, is formed from the 
stem by adding s. 


a. About thirty nouns (as nubes) change I to @ in the nom- 
inative (Compare Note, p. 22). 

These are acindces, alces, cedes, cautes, clades, compdges, contdges, 
crates, fames, feles, fides, labes, meles, moles, nubes, proles, propdges, sedes, 
sepes, sordes, strages, sub0les, sudes, tabes, torques, tudes, vates, vehes, verres. 


b. The nominative of a few stems in ri- does not add s, but loses 
i, inserting e before r. These are imber, linter, uter, venter. 


c. The nominative of neuters is the same as the stem, with the 
change of i to 6. But, when i is preceded by al or ar, the e is 
lost (except in collare, mare, navale, tibiale). 


Notre. — This latter class were originally neuters of adjectives in 
alis, aris; and, when used as adjectives, retain the e. They are the 
following : antmal, cervical, cubttal, putéal, toral, tribitnal ; calcar, cochlear, 
exemplar, lactinar, laquear, lumtnar, palear, pulvinar, torciilar, vectigal. 


18 THIRD DECLENSION. [11, 1. 
SINGULAR. 

Tower (¥.). Cloud (¥.). Sea (N.). Spur (N.). 
Nom. turris nubés maré calcar 
Gen. __ turris nubis maris calcaris 
Dat. — turri nubi mari calcari 
Acc. turrim(em) nubem maré calcar 
Voc. turris nubés maré calcar 
Abl.  turri @) nubé mari calcari 

PLURAL. 
Nom. turrés nubés maria calcaria 
Gen.  turrium nubium marium calcarium 
Dat.  turribus nubibus maribus calcaribus 
Ace. turris (6s) nubés maria calcaria 
Voc. _ turrés nubés maria calcaria 
Abl. _turribus nubibus maribus calcaribus 


3. Case Forms. a. The regular form of the accusative 
singular, M. and F., is im (as am, um, em of the other vowel- 
declensions). . But, in most nouns, this was supplanted by the con- 
sonant-form em; and it is only retained in the following : — 


1. Exclusively (1) in Greek nouns and names of rivers; (2) in 
buris, cuctimis, ravis, sitis, tussis, vis; (8) in adverbs in tim (being acc. 
of nouns in tis), with partim and amussim ; 


2. Along with em in febris, restis, turris, sectiris, sementis, and (in 
one or two passages) in many other words. 


6b. The regular form of the ablative singular is I (as in the 
other declensions 4, 6, G, 6, with loss of the original d). This 
was also supplanted by &, and retained only — 


1. Exclusively (1) in those above having accusative in im; also 
securis, and the following adjectives used as nouns: «@qualis, annalis, 
aqualis, consularis, gentilis, molaris, primipilaris, tribulis ; (2) in neuters 
‘ (as above): except baccar, jubar, and sometimes (in verse) mare, rete ; 


2. Along with e in avis, clavis, febris, finis, ignis (always aqud et 
igni interdict), imber, navis, ovis, pelvis, puppis, sementis, strigtlis, turris ; 
and the following adjectives used as nouns: affinis, bipennis, canalis, 
Jamiliaris, natalis, rivalis, sapiens, triremis, vocalis. 


3. The ablative of fames, hunger, is always of the Fifth declen- 
sion. The defective mane, morning, has sometimes abl. mani. 


_ 4. Most names of towns in e—as Preneste, Care—and the 
mountain Soracte, have the ablative in e 


11, 11.] THIRD DECLENSION. — LIQUID STEMS. 19 


c. The regular nominative plural would be is, but this is 
rarely found. The regular accusative is is common, but not 
exclusively used in any word. 

d. The regular genitive plural ium is retained by all except 
the following : — 

(1) ambdges and volucris (always um) ; (2) vates (commonly um) ; 
(3) apis, cudes, clades, subdles (rarely um) ; (4) canis, juvénis, mensis, had 
not originally vowel-stems, and retain um ; but mensis has both. 

4. Greek Nouns. — A few Greek nouns in is have the ace. 


im or in, voc. {, abl. L f 
Many in 6s have forms of the First or Second Declension: as, 
Achilles, gen. ei or i, dat. i, acc. En, ea, voc. 6, abl. 1 


Nore. — Nouns such as urbs, pars, having the genitive plural ium 
and the accusative (occasionally) is, were originally vowel-stems. 


i. Liquip STEMs. 


In nouns whose stem ends in a liquid (1, n, r), the nom- 
inative has no termination, but is the same as the stem, except 
when modified as follows: — 

a. Final n of the stem is dropped in masculines and feminines, 
except some Greek nouns: as, ledn-is, leo; legidn-is, legio. 


b. Stems ending in din-, gin- (mostly feminine) retain in the 
nominative an original o: as, virgo. Those in in- preceded by 
any other consonant retain an original €: as, carmén, inis, Nn. ; 
cornicen, inis,M. (Exceptions Lv. 2, b.) 


c. Nouns whose stem ends in tr retain in the nominative an 
original e: as, pater (compare I. 2, b.). 


d. In neuters whose stem ends in @r, Sr, tir, the r was originally 
s, which is retained in the nominative, 6 of the stem being weak- 
ened into ti: as, opiis, Eris: corpitis, Sris. A few masc. and 
fem. stems also retain s. (Exceptions Iv. 2, 6.) 


€. Stems in ll, rr, lose one of these liquids in the nominative. 


f. The following have gen. plur. ium: glis, mas, ren, mus. 


Sine. Consul. Pur. Sine. Name. Pwr. 
Nom. consiil constilés nomén nomina 
Gen.  consilis constilum nominis nominum 
Dat.  consili constilibus nomini nominibus 
Ace. consilem  consiilés nomen nomina 
Voe. consi consilés nomen nomina 


Abl. consile constlibus nomine nominibus 


20 THIRD DECLENSION. — MUTE STEMS. [ 11, 111, 





Honor, M. Lion,M. Father,M. Tree, ¥. Maiden, ¥. Work,N. 
Sing. : 
N. v. honor leo pater arbor. virgo — opus 
a. honoris lednis patris arbdoris virginis opéris 
D. honori leoni patri arbori virgini operi 
A. honorem lednem patrem arbGrem virginem Opus 
A honore leone patre arbore virgine opere 
Plur, f 
N. A.V. honéres lednes patres arbdres  virgines opéra 
G. hondrum lednum patrum arbodrum virginum opérum 
D. Ab. honoribus leonibus patridus arboribus virginibus operibus 


IJ. Mure Srems. 


Masculine or feminine nouns whose stem ends in a Mute 
form the nominative by*adding s, Neuters have for nomina- 
tive the simple stem. 


Norse. —If the stem ends in two consonants, the genitive plural 
generally has ium (seelI.4,N.). Some of these, originally i-stems, 
have also an oid nominative in is: as, trabis, urbis. 


1. Labial. If the mute is a labial (b, p), 8 is simply 
added to the stem. 


a. Stems in {ip- retain in the nominative an original e, the 
vowel having been weakened in the other cases: as, princeps, ipis. 


b. Most stems in cip- (M.) are compounds of the root cap (in 
capio) take: as, auceps (avi-ceps), bird-catcher. 


_ In these the stem sometimes has the form cups, as auciipis. 


c.. The only noun whose stem ends in m is hiemps, winier. 
(For the insertion of p, see note, foot of p. 3.) 


SING. Cily, F. PLUR. SING. Chief. PLUR. 
Nom. urbs _ urbes princeps . principes 
Gen. _urbis urbium principis principum 
Dat. urbi urbibus principi principibus 
Acc. urbem urbes principem principes 
Voc. urbs © urbes princeps principes 
Abl. urbe urbibus principe principibus 


‘2. Lingual. If the mute is a lingual (d, t), it is sup- 
pressed before s. 
a. Stems in it- (M. or F.) retain in the nominative an oricinal 
€: as, hospés, itis. (In a few, as comes, the e is not original.) 
> Nore.—The only nominative in t is caput, tis. 
b. Neuter stems ending in two consonants, and those ending 


in At- (Greek nouns), drop the final lingual in the nominative: as, 
cor, cordis;- poéma, Atis. 


11, 111.] THIRD DECENSION.— MUTE STEMS. 21 




















SING. Guard. PLUR. sinc. Companion. PLUR. 
Nom.  custds custddes comés comites 
Gen. custddis custodum coniitis comitum 
Dat. custddi custddibus comiti comitibus 
Ace. custodem custddes comitem comites 
Voce. custds custodes comes comites 
Abl. custdde custodibus comite comitibus 
Sing. Age, ¥. Heart,N.  Stone,M. Family, ¥. Head, N. Poem,N. 
N.V. eetas. cor lapis gens caput poéma _ 
I. sweiatis cordis lapidis gentis capitis poeméatis 
D. setati cordi lapidi genti capiti poemati 
A. setatem cor lapidem gentem caput poeéma 
7 . tate (1) corde apide gente capite poemate 

ur. 
N. A.V. states corda lapides gentes capita poemata 
G.s eetatum (ium) lapidum gentium capitum poemaétum 
D. Ab. eetatibus cordibus lapidibus gentibus capitibus ies 
or 1pu8s 


c. Case-forms. Some nouns of lingual stems have forms 
of the vowel-declension. 


1. Participles used as nouns, and a few others originally i-stems, 
occasionally have the ablative in i: as, continenti, etati, parti, sorti. 


2. Stems in tat (originally i-stems), nt= (participles used as nouns), 
d or t preceded by a consonant, — also dis, lis, and pons,— regularly 
have the genitive plural ium. 


3. Names denoting birth or abode, with stems in ats, ite (originally 
adjectives), with penates, optimates, regularly have the gen. plur. ium. 


_ ad. Greek neuters (as poéma), with nom. sing. in a, frequently 
end the dat. and abl. plur. in is, and rarely the gen. in Srum. 

3. Palatal. If the mute is a palatal (¢, g), it unites 
With gs in the nominative, forming x. 


a. Stems in ic- (short i) have nom. in ex, and are chiefly mas- 
culine ; those in ic- (long i) retain i, and are feminine. 


_ 6. In nix, nivis, snow, the nom. retains a palatal lost in the 
other cases (original stem snig-, compare ningit); supellex 
(-ectilis) is partly a lingual, partly an i-stem. 


sinc. Peak, M. PLuR. sinc. Raven, F. PLUR. 
Nom. apex apices cornix cornices 
Gen. apicis” apicum cornicis cornicum 
Dat. — apici apicibus cornici cornicibus 
Ace. apicem apices cornicem cornices 
Voce. apex apices cornix cornices 


Abl. —apice apicibus). cornice cornicibus 


} 


‘A 


22 THIRD DECLENSION: MUTE STEMS. [11; 11 


Sing. Peace, ¥. King, mM. Light, ¥. Fruit, ¥. . Citadel, ¥. Throat. 
N.V. pax rex lux {frux] arx -— 
G. pacis régis lucis frigis arcis —_— 
D. paci regi luci frugi arci a 
Ac. pacem rezem lucem frugem arcem — 
Ab. pace rege luce fruge arce fauce 
Piur. 
‘N. A.V. paces reges luces fruges arces fauces 
— regum gum arcium faucium 


— u 
D.Ab. pacibus regibus lucibus frugibus arcibus faucibus 


c. Case-forms. A few monosyllables, as faux (def.), arx, 
have gen. plur. ium; in lux, an abl. luci occurs rarely. 


4. Peculiar Forms. In many nouns the stem is yari- 
ously modified in the nominative. 


a. The vowel-stems gru-, su-, simply add s, retaining the 
original 7; grtis has also a nom. gritis; sus has in pl. subus. 


6. In bov- (bou-), the diphthong ou becomes 6 (b6s, bivis); 
in nav- (nau-) an i is added (navis, is); in Jév-(—Zeic) the diph- 
thong becomes @ in Ju-piter (pater), gen. Jévis, &. 


c. In itér, itinéris (N.), jécur, jecindris (N.), the nom. has 
been formed from a shorter stem; so that these words show a 
combination of two distinct forms. 


ad. Of the many original s-stems, only vas, vasis (pl. vasa, 
Orum) retains its proper declension. 


Notre. — Of apparent s-stems, as (assis) is an i-stem; of os, ossis, 
the original stem is osti- (cf. do0reov and Sanskrit asthi); while the 
others have either (1) passed into r-stems (changed from s) in most of 
the cases, as honor, Gris, corpus, Gris (see liquid stems) ; or (2) have 
broken down into i-stems, as moles (cf. molestus), mubes (Sanskrit 
nabhas), sedes (cf. os), vis (vires), &c. 


Sing. Oz, 0. Snow, F. Old Man,M. Flesh, ¥. Bone, N. Force, F. 
N. V. bos nix sénex caro 6s vis 
G. bodvis nivis sénis carnis ossis vis 
D. boévi nivi séni carni Ossi a 
A. bivem  nivem sénem carnem os vim 
> bdve nivé séné carne osse vi 

ur. 
N. A.V. bives __ nives sénes carnées ossa vires 
G. boum —_— sénum — Ossium virium 
D.A. boous nivibus sénibus carnibus ossibus  viribus 


%. The Locative form for nouns of the Third declension ends, 
like the dative, in 1; sometimes, like the ablative, in @: as, ruri, 
in the country; Karthagini, at Carthage; Tibitire (Hor.), at 
Tibur ; — plural in Ybus: as, Trallibus, at Tralles. 


6. Greek Nouns. Many nouns, originally Greek, — 
mostly proper names, — retain Greek forms of inflection. 


a. Stems in in- (i long) add s in the nominative, omitting n: 
as, delphis (but also delphin), Salamis. So Phorcys. 


11: Il, IV.] THIRD DECLENSION: RULES OF GENDER. 23 


b. Most stems in id- (nom. is) often have also the forms of 
i-stems: as, tigris, Idis (idos) or is; acc. idem (ida) or im; abl. 
ide or i. But many, including most feminine proper names, have 
acc. idem (ida), abl. ide,—not im andi. These follow the 
forms in Greek, which depend on the place of the accent. 


c. Stems in 6n- sometimes retain n: as, Agamemnon (or 
Agamemno), 6nis, acc. Ona. 


d. Stems in ont- form the nom. in Gn: as, horizon, Xend- 
phon; but a few are occasionally latinized into Gn- (nom. 0): as, 
Draco, Onis. 


e. Stems in ant-, ent-, have nom. in 4s, is: as, adamas, 
antis; Simois, entis. So a few in unt- (contr. from oent-) have 
tis: as, Trapézus, untis. Occasionally the Latin form of nom- 
inative is also found: as, Atlans, elephans. 


f. Case-Forms.—Many Greek nouns (especially in the 
poets) have gen. 6s, acc. 4; plur. nom. 6s, acc. as: as, aér, 
aethér, cratér, héros (Gis), lampas (Adis or ados), lynx (cis 
or c63), nais (idos), Orpheus (eos). 

g» A few in ys have acc. yn, voc. y; abl. yé: as, chelys, 
yn, y; Capys, yos, yn, y, ye. 

h. Several feminine names in 6 have gen. sing. tis, all the 
other cases ending in 6; they may also have regular forms: as, 
Dido; gen. Diddnis or Didtis; dat. Diddni or Dido, Kc. 





IV. Rutes or GENDER. 


I. The following are general Rules of Gender of nouns 
of the third declension, classed according to the termination 
of the nominative. 


Notre.— Rules of gender are mostly only rules of memory, as 
there is no necessary connection between the form and gender. In 
fact, most nouns could originally be inflected in all genders. 


a. Masculine endings are 0, or, os, er, es (idis, Itis). 

b. Feminine endings are as (atis), es (is), is, ys, x, s (follow- 
ing a consonant); also, do, go, io (abstract and collective), and 
iis (iidis, itis). 

c. Neuter endings are a, e, i, y; ¢, 1, t; men (minis); ar, 
ur, us (Gris, Gris). 

2. The following are general Rules of Gender of nouns 
of the third declension, classed according to their stems. 


Norte. — See the Note above. But the. preference of masc. and 
fem. (especially fem.) for long vowels cannot be accidental (compare 
long a of Ist declension). Some afiixes also prefer one or another 
gender: as, tor (originally tar), masculine; ti, feminine ; men (origi- 
nally man), neuter. 


24 THIRD DECLENSION: RULES OF GENDER. ([Al1: Iv. 


a. Vowel Stems. Stems in i, having s in the nominative, 
are feminine, except those mentioned below (3, a). ‘hose having 
nominative in @, or which drop the e, are neuler. 


b. Liquid Stems. Stems in 1 are masculine, except sil, 
fel, mel, and sometimes sal (N). Those in min are neuter, ex- 
cept homo, nemo, flamen (M.). Others in in are masculine, 
except pollen, unguen (N.). ‘Those in €n are masculine. Those 
in din, gin, ién (abstract and collective) are feminine. Others 
in 6n, with cardo, margo, ordo, unio, senio, quaternio, are 
masculine. Those in r preceded by a short vowel are neuter, 
except nearly 30 given below. ‘Those in r preceded by a long 
vowel are masculine, except soror, uxor, glos, tellus, Fr.; crus, 
jus, pus, rus, tus (in which the long vowel is due to contraction), N. 


ce. Labial Stems (no neuters). Stems in b and m are 
feminine, except chalybs. ‘Those in p are chiefly masculine 
(exceptions below). 


d. Lingual Stems. Stems in ad, éd, id, nd, tid, aud, are 
Jeminine, except dromas, pes, quadrupes, obses, preeses, 
lapis (M.). Those in at, tit, are feminine, except patrials (as 
Arpinas), with penates and optimates. Those in 6d, &t, are 
masculine, except merces and quies with its compounds. ‘Those 
in &t, it, are masculine, except abies, merges, seges, teges (Fr.), 
and those which are common trom signification. Those in at are 
neuter ; those in nt various (see List) ; those in lt, rt, feminine. 
(For a few isolated forms, see List.) 


e. Palatal Stems. Stems in ec preceded by a consonant 
or long vowel are feminine, except calx (stone or heel), decunx, 
phoenix, storax, vervex, M. ‘Those in c preceded by a short 
vowel are chiefly masculine (for exceptions, see List); those in g, 
masculine, except frux, lex, phalanx, syrinx (also nix, nivis). 


3. The following are the Forms of Inflection of nouns of 
the Third Declension, classed according to their Stems. 


a. Vowel-Stems. 


és, is:— about 35 nouns (original s-stems, list p. 17), feminine, 
except tudes, hammer ; vates, prophet; verres, pig (M.). 
is, Is: — about 100 nouns, chiefly feminine. 

Exc. — edilis, edile; amnis, river; anguis, snake; antes (pl.), 
ranks; assis, a coin; axis, axle; callis (c.), by-path; canalis (c.), 
canal; canis (c.), dog; caulis, stalk; civis (c.), citizen; clunis (c.), 
haunch ; collis, hill; crinis (c.), hair; ensis, sword; fascis, fagot ; 
finis (c.), end; follis, bellows; funis (c.), rope; fustis, club; hostis 
(C.), enemy; ignis, fire; juvenis (c.), youth; lactes (pl.), entrails ; 
lares, gods; manes, departed spirits; mensis, month; orbis, circle ; 
panis, bread; piscis, fish; sentis (c.), brier; testis (c.), witness; 
torris, brand; unguis, claw; vectis, bar; vepres (c., pl.), bram- 
bles; vermis, worm (M.). 


11: Iv., 3.] THIRD DECLENSION: FORMS OF INFLECTION. 25 

8, is: — upwards of 20 nouns, all neuter. 

Al, Alis; ar, aris: — 16, neuter (see list, page 17; and for those 
in Ar, aris, see Liquid Stems). 

ér, ris: —imber, shower; linter, boat; uter, bag; venter, stom- 
ach, —all M. except linter, which is commonly F. 

PrcurtarR:— grus, gruis, crane, F.; rhus, rhois (acc. rhum), 

sumach, M.; sus, suis, hog, C.; heros, herdis, hero, M.; misy, 

yos, truffle, ¥.; oxys, yos, sorrel, F.;  cinnibari, vermilion ; 

gummi, gum; sinapi, s#ustard (indecl.), N.; chelys, yn, y, F. lyre. 


b. Liquid Stems. 


1, lis: —9 nouns, masculine, except sil, ochre, and (sometimes) 
sal, salt, Nn. 

en, nis: — hymen, marriage ; ren, kidney ; splen (Enis), spleen, M. 

én, inis:—10 nouns, M. except pollen, flour; unguen, oint- 
ment, N. 

mén, minis (verbal): — about 30 nouns, neuter; but flamen, 
priest, M. ; 

On, Snis (Greek): — canon, rule; damon, divinity; gnomon, 
index, M.;—aé€don, nightingale; alcyon, kingfisher; ancon, 
corner ; sindon, fine linen, ¥. 

o, Snis:— nearly 60 nouns, all masculine. 

io, idnis (material objects, &c.) : — about 30 nouns, masculine. 

io, idnis (abstract and collective) :— upwards of 50, feminine. 

o, inis:— homo, man ; turbo, whirlwind, M.; nemo, no one, Cc. 

do, dinis:— nearly 50 nouns, feminine excepting cardo, hinge ; 
ordo, rank, M. 

go, ginis: — about 30 nouns, feminine. 

ar, aris :— baccar, valerian; jubar, sunbeam; nectar, nectar, N.; 

lar, household god ; salar, trout, M. 

ér, ris:—accipiter, hawk; frater, brother; pater, father, M.; 
mater, mother. 

ér, Gris (Greek): — crater, cup; halter, dumb-bell ; prester, water- 
spout, M. 3 ver, spring, N. 

ér, ris: —acipenser, hawk ; aér, air; zther, ether; anser, goose ; 
asser, stake; aster, star; cancer, crab; carcer, dungeon; 
later, brick; passer, sparrow, M.;— mulier, woman, F. ;— 
acer, maple ; cadaver, corpse; cicer, vetch ; papaver, poppy; 
piper, pepper ; tiber, hump ; uber, udder; verber, lash, Nn. 

is, €ris: — cinis, ashes; cuctimis, cucumber ; pulvis, dust; vomis, 
ploughshare, M. 

Or (6s), Gris: — nearly 70 nouns (besides many denoting the agent, 
formed upon verb-stems), all masculine, except soror, sister ; 
uxor, wife, 2 


26 THIRD DECLENSION: FORMS OF INFLECTION. [11: Iv., 3. 


dr, Sris: — castor, beaver; rhetor, rhetorician, M.;—arbor, tree, 
F.; —ador, fine-wheal ; zquor, level ; marmor, marble, n. 

5s, Sris :— flos, flower ; mos, custom ; ros, dew, M, ; — glos, sisler- 
in-law, F.;— OS, mouth, N. 

tir, Sris:—ebur, ivory; femur, thigh; jecur, liver; robur (or), 
strength, N. 

tir, tris: —9 masculine; with fulgur, thunderbolt; murmur, mur- 
mur; sulphur, brimstone, N. 

us, ris: — 13 neuter; also, Venus, F. 

us, Sris:—14 nouns, neuter, except lepus, hare, M. 

us, tris: — mus, mouse, M. ; — tellus, earth, F.;—crus, leg ; jus, 
right; pus, fester ; rus, country; tus, incense, N. 

PrecuriarR:—delphin, inis, dolphin; sanguis (en) Inis, blood ; 

senex, senis, old man, M.; caro, carnis, flesh, F.; ws, zris, cop- 

per; far, farris, corn; fel, fellis, gall; mel, mellis, honey; iter, 

itineris, journey; jecur, jecindris (jec6ris), diver, N.; glis, -iris, 

dormouse, M. 

c. Labial. 

bs, bis: —chalybs, steel, m.;—plebs, people; scrobs, ditch; 
trabs, beam ; urbs, city, ¥. (original i-stems). 

ms, mis:— hiemps, winter, F. 

ps, pis: — 15 nouns, masculine, except forceps, pincers ; merops, 
bee-eater ; ops, help; stips, gift; stirps, stock, ¥. 


ad. Lingual. 

as, Adis (Greek): —14 nouns, feminine, except dromas, drome- 
dary ; vas, surety, M. 

és, E€dis:—cupes, epicure; heres, heir; pres, surety, M.;— 
merces, pay, F. 

és, Edis: — pes, fool; quadrupes, quadruped, m.;—compes, 
fetter, ¥. 

€s, idis: — obses, hostage; przeses, chief, c. 

is, Idis: — nearly 40 nouns, mostly Greek, feminine, except lapis, 
stone, M. 

Os, Gdis :— custos, guardian, Cc. [sacerdos, priest, C. 

os, Otis: —nepos, grandson, M.; cos, whetstone; dos, dowry,F.; 

us, tidis:—§incus, anvil; palus, marsh; subscus, dovetail; with 
fraus, fraud ; laus, praise; pectis, tidis, sheep, F. 

a, atis (Greek) : — nearly 20 nouns, neuter. 

as, atis: —about 20 nouns (besides derivatives), feminine; also, 
anas, Atis, duck. 

és, etis:—celes, race-horse; lebes, kettle; magnes, magnet, M. ; 
— qules, requies, rest; inquies, unrest, F. 


11: Iv., 3.] THIRD DECLENSION: FORMS: OF INFLECTION. 27 


es, &tis:— aries, ram; interpres, interpreter; paries, house-wall, 
M.;—abies, fir; seges, crop; teges, mat, F. 

és, itis: — about 20 nouns, masculine (or common from significa- 
tion). 

lis, itis: —juventus, youth; senectus, old age; servitus, slavery ; 
virtus, virtue; salus, health, ¥. 

ns, ndis:— frons, leaf; glans, acorn; juglans, walnut, F. 

ns, ntis:— nearly 20 (besides many participial nouns), common, 
except dens, tooth ; fons, fountain; mons, mountain; pons, 
bridge, M.;—frons, brow; gens, nation; lens, lentile; mens, 
mind, F. 

rs, rtis (originally i-stems):— ars, art; cohors, cohort; fors, 
chance; mors, death; sors, lot, F. 

ys, ydis; s, ntis (Greek) : — chlamys, cloak, F.; Atlas, antis. 

PECULIAR: — as, assis, penny, M.;— lis, litis, lawsuit; nox, 

noctis, night; puls, pultis, pottage, ¥.;— caput, itis, head ; cor, 

cordis, heart ; hepar, atis, liver; os, ossis, bone; vas, vasis, ves- 

sel, N.; also, compounds of -piis, -pddis (m.), Gr. for pes, foot. 


e. Palatal. 


ax, Acis:— anthrax, coal ; corax, raven; frax (pl.), dregs 3; pan- 
ax, panacea; scolopax, woodcock, M.;— fax, torch; styrax, 
a gum, F. 

ax, acis: — cnodax, pivot; cordax, a dance; thorax, breastplate, 
M. ; — pax, peace, F. 

ex, icis: — upwards of 40 nouns, masculine, except Carex, 
sedge; forfex, shears; ilex, holm; imbrex, tile; nex (nécis), 
violent death ; pellex, concubine, F. 

ix, icis:— about 30, with filix, larix, salix, (icis), feminine; 
besides many in trix, regular feminines of nouns in tor. 

ox, Ocis: — celox, cutter, F. 

ux, ticis : — dux, leader, c. ; — crux, cross; nux, nut, F. 

ux, ticis :— balux, gold-dust ; lux, light, F. 

x, cis : —arx, tower; calx, lime; falx, pruning-knife ; lynx, lynz; 
merx (def.), ware, F.; — calyx, cup; Calx, heel, M. 

x, gis: — conjux (nx), spouse; grex, herd; remex, rower; rex, 
king, M. or C. ;— frux (def.), fruit; lex, law; phalanx, pha- 
lanx, ¥., with a few rare names of animals. 

Other nouns in & are nix, nivis, snow; nox, noctis, night; su- 
pellex, ectilis, F.;— onyx, ychis, onyx, M. 

Nore.— Nouns having gen. plural in ium are —1. All i-stems ; 

2. Monosyllables with stem ending in two consonants ; 8 Most nouns 


in ns or rs (nom.), with several in as (atis); 4. The following :— 
dos, faux, fur, glis, lar, lis, mas, mus, nix, ren, strizx, vis. 


1 


_.. 


28 FOURTH DECLENSION. [12:.4; 2,°3. 


12. FourtH DECLENSION. 


The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends 
in u. (Usually this is weakened to 7 before -bus). 


1. Masculine and feminine nouns form the nominative by 
adding 8; neuters have for nominative the simple stem, but 
with @ (long). 


Notre. — The u in neuters is lengthened, probably on account of 
the loss of m. 


sinc. Car(M.) PLUR. sinc. Knee(N.) PLUR. 
Nom. curriis currus gént genua 
Gen. __currtis (uis) curruum gent (Us) genuum 
Dat. currui (i) curribus gent genibus 
Ace. currum currts gent genua 
Voc. —currtis currtis gent genua 
Abl. currtl curribus gent genibus 


Notr.— The Genitive singular is contracted from the old form in 
uis. It is sometimes written with a circumflex: as, curris. 


2. Gender.— ad. Most nouns in us are masculine. The 
following are feminine : — cus, needle; Anus, old woman; cdlus, 
distaff; ddémus, house; idus (pl.), the Ides; manus, hand; 
nurus, daughter-in-law ; porticus, gallery; quinquatrus, feast 
of Minerva; socrus, mother-in-law; tribus, tribe; with a few 
names of plants and trees. Also, rarely, arcus, penus, specus. 


6b. The only neuters are cornu, horn; genu, knee; pecu (def), 
catile; veru, spit. (Some others are mentioned by grammarians, 
and the form ossua, as from ossu, occurs in inscriptions.) 


_ 8. Case-Forms.—a. An original genitive in os is some- 
times found: as, senatuos; and an old (but not original) geni- 
tive in i is used by some writers. 


b. The nominative plural has rarely the form uus. 
c. The genitive plural is sometimes contracted into tim. 


d@. The following retain the regular dative and ablative plural 


in ubus: artus, partus, portus, tribus, veru; with dissyllables 
in -cus, as lacus. 


é. Domus, house, has also the following forms of the second 
declension: domi (locative; less frequently domui), at home; 
dative (rarely) dom; ablative domé (rarely domi); plural gen. 
domorum (rarely domuum); accusative domGs (or domiis). 


"18:1, 2.) FIFTH DECLENSION. 29 
\ 


f- Most names of plants, with colus, distaff, have also forms 
of the second declension. 


4. Most nouns of the fourth declension are formed from verb- 
stems, with the suflix -tus: as, cantus, song, from cano. 


a. The Supines of verbs are the accusative and ablative (or 
dative, perhaps both) of these nouns. 


b. Many have only the genitive, or the genitive and ablative : 
as, jussu (meo), by my command; so injussu (populi), without 
the people’s order. Some only the dative, memoratui, divisui. 

c. The remaining nouns of this declension are the following : — 


zestus, heat; arcus, bow; artus, joint; coetus, meeting; fetus, pro- 
duce; ficus, fig; gradus, step ; incestus, incest; lacus, /ake; laurus, 
laurel ; myrtus, myrtle; penus (def.), provision; pinus, pine; portus, 
port; rictus, gape; senatus, senate; sinus, fold, bay; situs, dust ; 
specus, den; tonitrus, thunder; tumultus, tumult. 


Nore. — Several of these are formed upon verb-stems not in use, 
or obsolete. 


13. Firtra DECLENSION. 


The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends 
in 6, which appears in all the cases. 


1, The nominative is formed from the stem by adding s. 


sInG. Thing (¥F.) PLUR. sinc. Day (M.) PLUR. Faith (®.) 
Nom.  rés rés diés diés fides 
Gen. réi rérum diéi diérum fidéi 
Dat. réi rébus diéi diébus fidéi 
Ace. rem rés diém diés fidem 
Voc. res rés diés diés ; fidés 
Abl. ré rebus dié diébus fidé 


Norte. — The e is shortened in the genitive and dative singular, 
when not preceded by i; viz., in jides, plebes, spes, res. 


2. Gender. All nouns of this declension are feminine, 
except dies and meridies, m. 


Nore. — Dies is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in 
phrases indicating a fixed time, or time in general: as, longa dies, 
a long time ; constituta die, on the set day; also in the poets: pulcra 
dies, a fair day. 


30 IRREGULAR NOUNS. [13, 14:1. 


3. Case-Forms. The genitive singular anciently ended in 
és (cf. as of first declension); and ei was sometimes contracted 
into i or e, asin the phrase plebi-scitum, people’s decree (Fr. 
plebiscite). An old dative in i or e also occurs. 


4M. Several nouns of the fifth declension have also forms of the 
first, of which this is only a variety: as, materia, -ies, timber ; 
saevitia, -ies, cruelty. 


Norr.— Nouns in ies (except dies) are original a-stems. The 
others are probably (excepting res) corrupted s-stems, like moles, 
moles-tus ; dies, diurnus ; spes, spero. Requies (étis) has also forms of 
this declension: with others, as saties (for satietas), &c. 


5. The Locative form of this declension is represented by -e, 
as in hodie, to-day ; perendie, day-after-to-morrow ; die quarti, 
the fourth day ; pridie, the day before. 


6. Of about forty nouns of this declension, the only ones com- 
plete in all their parts are dies and res. Most want the plural, 
which is, however, found in the nominative, accusative, and voca- 
tive, in the following: acies, effigies, eluvies, facies, glacies, 
progenies, series, species, spes. 


14, IrreGuLar Novons. 


1. Defective. Many nouns are defective in their forms 
of declension, either from signification or by accident of use. 


a. Some are found only in the singular (singularia tantum), 
chiefly abstract nouns: as, pietas, piety; names of materials and 
things weighed or measured (not counted): as, aes, copper, far, 
corn; and proper names, as Cicero. 

Abstract nouns in the plural may denote repetitions or instances, 
as paces:—names of things measured, &c., kinds or samples, as 
vina, wines, aera, brazen utensils ; proper names, two or more of 
the same, as Scipiones. So Galliae, the two Gauls, Castires, 
Castor and Pollux, nives, snowflakes, soles, days, Joves, images 
of Jupiter, palatia, the buildings on the hill. 


_ 6. Some are found only in the Plural (pluralia tantum): these 
include (1) many proper names, including those of Festivals and 
Games; (2) names of classes: as, majores, ancestors; liberi, 
children; penates, household gods; (3) the following from sig- 
nification: arma, weapons ; artus, joints ; divitiae, riches ; excu- 
biae, night-guard; insidiae, ambush ; manes, departed spirits ; 
minae, threats ; moenia, fortifications, and a few others, which 
are very rare. 


14: 1, 2.] IRREGULAR NOUNS. 31 


c. The following are defective in Case : — 


ambage, § F.; astus (s. and p.), astu, M.; cassem, e, § M.; dapis, i, em, e,§ 
F.; dicam, as, F.; dicionis, i, em, e, § F.; fauce,§ F.; foras, is (pl.), F.; 
fors, forte, F.; frugis, i, em, e,§ ¥.; glos, F.; gratic, as, is, F.; inpetus, 
um, U, M.; imjitias, F.; jugera, um, ibus, N.; lues, em, e, F.; mane (nom., 
ace., and abl.), N.; nauci, N.; obice,§ c.; opis, em, e,§ F.; pondo (abl. or 
indec.), N.; precem, e, § F.; sentis, em, es, ibus, M.; sordem, e, § F. ; spontis, 
€, F.; suppetias, F.; venui, um, M. (0, N.); vicis, em, e, es, thus, F. The 
_gen. plur. is also wanting in cor, cos, fax, fex, lux, nex, os (oris), pax, pres, 
ros, sal, sol, tus, vas, ver; jura, rura, have only nom. and acc. plur. 
§ Plural complete. 


Many nouns of the fourth declension occur only in the dative, or 
in the acc. and abl. (supines). 

The following neuters are indeclinable: fas, nefas, instar, necesse, 
nihil, opus, secus. | 

Nouns found only in one case are called monoptotes ; in two cases, 
diptotes ; in three cases, triptotes, 


2. Variable. Many nouns vary in their form of declen- 
sion, their gender, or their signification under different forms. 


a. Some have two or more forms of Declension, and are called 
heteroclites: as, 


Balnea or @ ; carbasus (F.), pl.,a (N.); colus (1st and 4th), F.; femur, 
Oris or tnis; jugerum, 7, or abl. e, pl. a, um, N.; margarita, @ (F.), or 
um, t(N.); Mulciber, bri or beris ; munus, éris, pl. munia (mania), orum ; 
pubes, eris ; em, e; penus, t, or Oris ; sevitia, @; -ies, tet ; -itudo, inis, F.; 
sequester, tri, or tris ; with many found in the lst and 5th declensions, 
and a few other rare forms. 4 


b. Some nouns vary in Gender (heterogeneous) : as; 


celum (N.), pl. cali (m.), sky; clipeus (m.), or clipeum (N.), 
shield; frenum (N.), pl. freni (M.), rein. 


_¢. Many nouns vary in meaning as they are found in the 
singular or plural: as, 


zdes, is (F.), temple; zdes, ium, house. 

auxilium (N.), help; auxilia, auxiliaries. 

carcer (M.), dungeon; carcéres, barriers (of a race-course). 

castrum (N.), fort ; castra, camp. 

copia (F.), plenty ; copiz, troops. 

finis (m.), end; fines, bounds, territories. 

forum, market-place ; fori, gang-ways. 

gratia (F.), favor; gratia, thanks. 

impedimentum (n.), hinderance ; impedimenta, baggage. 

littéra (r.), letter (of alphabet) ; litterze, epistle. 

locus (m.), place [pl. loca (N.)]; loci, passages in books. (In early 
writers this is the regular plural.) 

ludus, sport ; ludi, public games. 

opera, task; operz, day-laborers (“ hands”’). 


32 PROPER NAMES. 4, 15. 


opis (F. gen.), help; opes, resources, wealth. 

pliga (F.), region [plaga, blow]; plage, snares. 
rostrum, beak of a ship; rostra, speaker’s platform. 
sal (mM. or N.), salt; sales, witticisms. 

tabella, tablet; tabellze, documents. 


sestertius (m.) means the sum of 24 asses, = about 5 cents. 
sestertium (N.) means the sum of 1000 sestertii, = about $50. 
decies sestertium means the sum of 1000 sestertia, = $50,000. 


d. Sometimes a noun in combination with an adjective takes a 
special signification, both parts being regularly inflected: as, jus- 
jurandum, jurisjurandi, oath; respublica, reipublicae, com- 
monwealth. 


15. Prorer NAMES. 


1. A Roman had regularly three names. Thus, in the 
name Marcus Tullius Cicero, we have — 


Marcus, the prwnomen, or personal name; 


Tullius, the nomen; i.e., name of the Gens, or house, whose 
original head was Tullus; this name is properly an adjective ; 


Cicero, the cognomen, or family name, often in its origin 
a nickname, — in this case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea. 

2. A fourth or fifth name, called the agnomen, was 
sometimes given. | 


Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was Publius 
Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aimilianus; Africanus from his ex- 
ploits in Africa; 4milianus as adopted from the milian gens. 


3. Women had no personal names, but were known only 
by that of their gens. 


Thus the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his daughter Tullia. 
A younger sister would have been called Tullia seeunda or minor, 
and so on. 


4, The commonest prenomens are thus abbreviated : — 


A. Aulus. L. Lucius. Q. Quintus. 
C. (G.) Gaius (Caius). M. Marcus. Ser. Servius. 
Cn. (Gn.) Gnzeus (Cneius), M’. Manius. Sex. Sextus. 
D. Decimus. Mam. Mamercus. Sp. Spurius. 
K. Keso. N. Numerius. T. Titus. 


App. Appius. P. Publius. Ti, Tiberius. 


16: 1.] ADJECTIVES : INFLECTION. 33 


ADJECTIVES. 


16. INFLECTION oF ADJECTIVES. 


ADJECTIVES and Participles are in general formed 
and declined like Nouns, differing from nouns only in 
. their use. In accordance with their use, they distin- 
guish gender by different forms in the same word. 
They are (1) of the first and second declensions, or 
(2) of the third declension. 


Note. — Latin adjectives and participles are either o-stems with 
the corresponding feminine a-stems (originally & and 4), or i-stems. 
Many, however, were originally stems in u or a consonant, which 
passed over, in all or most of their cases, into the i-declension, for 
which Latin had a special fondness. (Compare the endings és and 
is of the Third declension with Greek es and ds; navis (nom.) with 
the Greek vats; animus with exanimis; cornu with bicornis; lingua 
with bilinguis ; cor, corde, corda, with discors, -di, -dia, -dium; sudvis 
with 48vs; ferens, -entia, with dépev, -ovra.) A few, which in other 
languages are nouns, retain the consonant-form: as, vetus = éros, 
uber = ot0ap. Comparatives also retain the consonant form in most 
of their cases. 


I. Stems in 0 have the feminine 4 (originally 4). They 
are declined like servus (m.), stella (r.), donum (N.): as, 


M. F. Ne 
Sing. Nom.  cariis cara carum, Dear. 
Gen. cari carae cari 
Dat. caro carae caro 
Ace. carum caram carum 
Voce. caré cara carum 
Abl. card cara caro 
Pror. Nom. cari carae cara 
Gen. carorum cararum car6rum 
Dat. caris Caris caris 
Ace. cards caras cara 
Voce. cari carae cara 
Abl. caris Caris caris 


Notr.— The masc. gen. of adjectives in ius ends in ii, and the 
vocative in ie; notin i as in nouns: the voc. masc. of meus is mi, 
2* 


34 ADJECTIVES: INFLECTION. [16: 1. 


a. In adjectives of stems ending in ro- preceded by 6 or a 
consonant (also satur), the masculine nominative is formed like 


puer or liber (§ 10;: as, 


Sing. Miser, wretched. Ater, black. 
N. miser miséra misérum ater atra atrum 
G. miseri miserse miseri atri atree atri 
D misero misers misero atro atree atro 
Ac. miserum miseram miserum atrum atram atrum 
Vv. miser _misera miserum ater atra atrum 
Ab misero misera misero atro atra atro 
LUT e 4 
N. miseri misers misera atri atree atra 
G. miserorum miserarum miserorum atrorum atrarum atrorum 
D. miseris miseris miseris atris atris atris 
Ac. miseros miseras misera atros atras atra 
Vv. miseri misers misera atri atree atra 
Ab. miseris miseris miseris atris atris atris 


Stems in 6ro, with morigérus, propérus, postérus, have the 
regular nominative i us. 


Like miser are declined —asper, rough; gibber, hunched; lacer, 
torn; liber, free; prosper (erus), favoring ; satur (ura, urum), sated ; 
tener, tender ; with compounds of -fer and -ger; also, usually, dexter, 
right. In these the e belongs to the stem; but in dexter it is often 
syncopated. 

Like ater are declined — eger, sick ; creber, close; faber, skilled ; 
glaber, sleck ; integer, whole; ludicer, sportive; macer, lean; niger, 
dark; noster, our; piger, sluggish ; ruber, red; sacer, sacred ; sinis- 
ter, left; teter, foul; vafer, shrewd ; vester, your. 

The following feminines lack a masculine singular nominative : — 
cetéra, inféra, postéra, supéra. ‘They are rarely found in the singular 
except in certain phrases: as, postero die. A feminine ablative in o 
is found in a few Greek adjectives, as lecitcd octoph6ro ( Verr. vy. 11.). 


b. The following (o-stems) with their compounds have the 
genitive singular in Ius and the dative in i in all the genders: — 
alius (N. aliud), other. nullus, none. ullus, any (with negatives). 
alter, other (of two). solus, alone. nus, one. 
neuter, -trius, neither. totus, whole. titer,-trius, which (of two). 

Norr.— The. suffix ter, in alter, uter, neuter, is the same as the 
Greek comparative suffix -repo(s). The stem of aliud appears in early 


Latin and in derivatives as ali-, in the forms alis, alid (for aliud), 
aliter, &c. Regular forms of gen. and dat. are found in early writers. 


Of these the singular is thus declined : — 











M. F. N. M. F. N. 
N. solus sola solum uter © - utra utrum 
G. solius  solius_ solius utrius utrius utrius 
D. soli soli soli utri utri utri 
A. solum solam_ solum utrum utram utrum 
A. solo sola solo utro utra utro 
N. alius alia aliud alter altéra alterum 
G. alius alius alius alterius alterius alterius 
D.. alii alii alii alteri alteri alteri 
A. alium aliam  aliud alterum alteram  alterum 
A. alio alia alia altero altera altero 


£6: 2] ADJECTIVES: INFLECTION: 35 


Note. — These words, in Greek and Sanskrit, are treated as pro- 
nouns; which accords with the pronominal forms of the genitive in 
ius, the dative in i, and the neuter d in aliud. ‘The i in the geni- 
tive <ius, though long, may be made short in verse; and alterius is 
generally accented on the antepenult. Instead of altus (gen.), alte- 
rius is more commonly used. In compounds —as altertiter — some- 
times both parts are declined, sometimes only the latter. 


2. Stems in i—distinguished by being parisyllabic— 
have properly no form for the feminine, and hence are called 
adjectives of two terminations. In the neuter,1 is changed 
to e. They are declined like turris (acc. em) and mare. 


Sing. M.,F. Light. N. mM. Keen. F. N. 
N.V. 1lévis _ Jéve acer acris acre 

G. lévis lévis acris acris acris 
D. lévi lévi acri acri ~acri 
Ac. lévem léve acrem acrem_ acre 
Bs ae Reale 9.6 VR a | acri acri acri 
Plur. 

N.V.  lévés lévia acres acres acria 
G. jévium lévium ~ acrium aacrium = acrium 
D. lévibus lévibus acribus acribus acribus 
Ac. lévés (is)  lévia acres (is) acres (is) acria 
Ab. lévibus lévibus acribus acribus acribus 


a. Several stems in ri- form the masc. nom. in er (as acer, 
compare § 11,1. 2, b.). These are the following :— 


acer, keen. . pedester, on foot. 
alacer, eager. puter, rotten. 
campester, of the plain. saliiber, wholesome. 
celeber, famous. silvester, wooded. 
equester, of horsemen. terrester, of the land. 
paluster, marshy. voliicer, winged. 


Also celer, celéris, celére, swift; and, in certain phrases, the 
names of months in -ber. 


Note. — This formation is not original; and hence, in the poets, 
and in early Latin, either the masculine or feminine form of these 
adjectives was used for both genders. In others, as illustris, lugubris, 
mediOcris, multebris, there is no separate masculine form. 


6. Case-Forms. These adjectives, as true i-stems, retain 
i in the abl. singular, the neut. plural ia, the gen. plur. ium, and 
often in the acc. plur. is, but never im in the ace. sing. For metri- 
cal reasons, an abl. in e€ sometimes occurs in poetry. When celer 
is used as an adjective, it has the regular gen. plur. in ium; as a 
noun, denoting a military rank, it is celérum: as a proper name, 
it has the abl. in e. 7 ; 


36 ADJECTIVES: INFLECTION. [16: 3. 


3. The remaining adjectives of the third declension have 
the form of i-stems in the ablative singular 1, the plural 
neuter ia, and genitive ium. In other cases they follow 
the rule of consonant-stems. 

a. In adjectives of consonant-stems (except comparatives) the 
nominative singular is alike for all genders: hence they are called 


adjectives of one termination. Except of stems in 1 and rf, it is 
formed from the stem by adding 8: as, 


Sing. M.F. Happy. N. M.F. Calling. N. 

N.V. felix félix vocans vocans 
Gen. felicis felicis vocantis vocantis 
Dat. __ felici * felici vocanti vocanti 
Ace. felicem felix vocantem vocans 
Abl.  felice: or. fell ~ vocante or vocanti 
Plur. 

N.V. _ felices felicia vocantes vocantia 
Gen. _ felicium felicium vocantium vocantium 
Dat. felicibus felicibus vocantibus vocantibus 
Acc. _ felices (is) felicia vocantes (is) vocantia 
Abl. felicibus felicibus vocantibus vocantibus 


Other examples are the following : — 


Sing. M. F. N. M. F. N. M. F. N. 
N.V. iens, going par, equal preeceps, headlong 
Gen. euntis paris preecipitis 

Dat. eunti | pari preecipiti 

Acc. euntem iens parem par precipitem preceps 
Abl. eunte (i) pari preecipite (i) 

Plur 

N.A.V. euntes euntia pares paria precipites precipitia 
Gen. euntium parium preecipitium 

D. Ab. euntibus paribus preecipitibus 

Sing. M. F. N. M. FB. N. M. F. N. 
N.Y. dives, rich uber, fertile vetus, old 

Gen. divitis ubéris vetéris 

Dat. _ Giviti _ ubéri vetéri 

Acc. divitem dives ubérem uber veterem vetus 
Abl. divite (i) ubere (i) vetere (i) 

Plur 

N.A.V. divites (ditia) ubéres ubéra vetéres votéra 
Gen divitum ubérum veterum 

D. Ab. divitibus uberibus veteribus 


Notr.— The regular feminine of these adjectives, by analogy of 
cognate languages, would end in ia: this form is found in the abstracts 
amentia, desidia, socordia, &c., and in proper names, as Forentia 
(cf. Greek dépovea). The neuter would regularly have the simple 
stem (as caput, cor, allec, Greek dépov); but in ail except liquid 
stems, the masc. form in s has forced itselt’ not only upon the neuter 
nominative, but upon the accusative also, where it is wholly abnormal. 


16: 3.] ADJECTIVES: INFLECTION. 37 


A few of these forms, used as nouns, have a feminine in a: as, 
clienta, hospita, inhospita, with the appellation Juno Sospita. 


b. The stem of Comparatives properly ended in 3s, which 
became or in all cases except the neuter singular (N. A. v.), where 
s is retained, and 6 is changed to % (compare honor, Oris; cor- 
pus, dris). Thus they appear to have two terminations. 


“Sing. M.F. Dearer. N. M.F. More. N. — 
N.V.  carior carius — plus 
Gen. _cariOris cari6ris —— pliris 
Dat. —_cari6ri cariori — pliri 
Ace. —cari6rem carius -e plus 
Abl. cariG6re’ or cariori — plire 
Plur. 

N.V. caridres cari6ra plires plira (ia) 
Gen.  cari6rum cari6rum plurium plurium 
Dat. _—carioribus carioribus pluribus pluribus 
Ace. CariOres cari6ra plures plura 
Abl.  carioribus _—_carioribus _ pluribus pluribus 


Notre. — The neut. sing. plus is used only as a noun; the gen. 
(rarely abl.) as an expression of value; the dative is not found in 
classic use. Its derivative, complures, several, has sometimes neut. 
plur. compluria. All other comparatives are declined like carior, 


c. Case Forms. 1. The ablative singular of these adjec- 
tives commonly ends in i; but, when used as nouns, — as super- 
stes, survivor, —they have e. Participles in ns used as such, — 
especially in the Ablative Absolute, — or as nouns, regularly have 
e; but as adjectives, regularly ii (So adjectives in ns as in the 
porase, me imprudente.) 


In the following, e is the regular form :-—ccles, compos, deses, dives, 
hospes, pauper, particeps, preceps, princeps, superstes, supplex; also in 
patrials (see § 44), with stems in at-, it-, nt-, rt-, when used as 
nouns, and sometimes as adjectives. 


2. The genitive plural ends commonly in ium, and the accusa- 
tive often in Is, even in comparatives, which are less inclined to 
the i-declension. 


_ In the following, the gen. plur. ends in um:—always in dives, 
compos, inops, preepes, supplex, and compounds of pes ; — sometimes, in 
poetry, participles in ns. In vetus (&ris), pubes (Eris), uber (éris), which 
did not become i-stems, the forms e, a, um, are regular; but uber and 
vetus rarely have the abl. in i. 


3. Several are declined in more than one form: as, gracilis (us), 
hilaris (us), inermis (us). A few are indecl. or defective: as, 


damnas (esto, sunto), frugi (dat. of advantage), exspes (only nom.), exlex 
(nom. and ace.), mactus (nom. and voc.), nequam (indecl.), pernox (pers 
noctu), potis, pote (indecl. or M. F. potis, N. pote), primoris, seminéci, &C 


38 ADJECTIVES: COMPARISON. 725, 


d. Many adjectives, from their signification, are used only in 
the masculine or feminine, and may be called adjectives of common 
gender. Such are adolescens, youthful; deses, idis, sloth ful; 
inops, Spis, poor; sospes, itis, safe. So senex and juvenis 
may be called masculine adjectives. 

e. Many nouns may be also used as adjectives (compare § 47, 
3): as, pedes, a footman or on foot ; especially nouns in tor (M.) 
and trix (r.), denoting the agent: as, victor exercitus, the con- 
quering army; victrix causa, the winning cause. 


f. Certain cases of adjectives are regularly used as Adverbs. 
These are, the acc. and abl. of the neuter singular: as, multum, 
multo, much;—the neuter of comparatives (regularly): as, 
carius, more dearly ; lévius, more lighily ; — together with those 
ending in 6 for o-stems, and ter for i-stems: as, caré, dearly ; 
leviter, lightly ; acerrime, most eagerly. 


17. CoMPARISON. 


1. Regular Comparison. The Comparative is formed 
by adding, for the nominative, ior (old stem 10s), neuter ius, 
and the Superlative by adding iss{mus, a, um (old  iss- 
timus), to the stem of the Positive, which loses its final 
vowel: as, 


carus, dear; carior, dearer; carissimus, dearest. 

lévis, light ; levior, lighter ; levissimus, lightest. 

félix, happy ; felicior, happier ; felicissimus, happiest. 

hebes, dull ; hebetior, duller ; hebetissimus, dullest. 

Note. — The comparative suffix is the same as the Greek fwy, or 
the Sanskrit iyans. That of the superlative (issimus) is a double 
form, but what is the combination is not certain; perhaps it stands for 


ios-timus (comp. and sup.), or possibly for ist-timus (two superla- 
tives). Strictly, new stems are thus formed. 


a. Adjectives in er form the superlative by adding -rimus to 
the nominative (comparative regular) : as, 


miser, miserior, miserrimus ; acer, acrior, acerrimus. 


So vetus, veterrimus (for comparative, vetustior) from the old 
form veter; and, rarely, maturrimus (for maturissimus). 


b. The following in lis add -limus to the stem clipped of its 
vowel: facilis, easy; difficilis, hard; similis, like; dissimilis, 
unlike; gracilis, slender ; humilis, low. 


Nors. — The endings -limus and -yimus, the regular superlatives, 
are formed by assimilation from -timus and -simus. 


L7--2, 2.) ADJECTIVES: COMPARISON. 39 


c. Compounds in -dicus (saying), -ficus (doing), -vdlus 
(willing), take the forms of corresponding participles in ns, 
which were anciently used as adjectives: as, — 

maledicus, slanderous, maledicentior, maledicentissimus. 
malevdlus, spiteful, malevélentior, malevolentissimus. 


d. Adjectives in us preceded by a vowel (except u) rarely 
have forms of comparison, but are compared by the adverbs 
magis, more; Maxime, most: as, 


idoneus, jit; magis idoneus, maxime idoneus. 


Most derivatives in -icus, -idus, -alis, -aris, -ilis, -tilus, -undus, 
-timus, -inus, -Ivus, -Grus, with compounds, as degener, inops, 
are also thus compared. 


e. Participles when used as adjectives are regularly compared : 
as, patientior, patientissimus; apertior, apertissimus. 

Norre.— Many adjectives—as aureus, golden—are from their 
meaning incapable of comparison; but each language has its own 
usage in this respect. Thus niger, black, and candidus, white, are 
compared; but not ater or albus, meaning absolute black or white. 


2. Irregular Comparison. Several adjectives are 
compared from different stems, or contain irregular forms: as, 


| bdnus, mélior, optimus, good, better, best. 

-\mélus, péjor, pessimus, bad, worse, worst. 

magnus, major, maximus, great, greater, greatest. 
-parvus, minor, minimus, small, less, least. 

-multum, pliis (N.), plurimum, much, more, most. 
‘multi, plires, plurimi, many, more, most. 
néquam (indecl.), nequior, nequissimus, worthless, 
friigi (indecl.), frugalior, frugalissimus, useful, worthy. 
dexter, dextérior, dextimus, on the right, handy. 


3. Defective Comparison. The following are formed 
from roots or stems not used as adjectives : — 


‘eis, citra] citérior, citimus, hither, hithermost. 
fin, intra] intérior, intimus, inner, inmost. 
[prae, pro] prior, primus, former, first. 


[prope] propior, proximus, nearer, next. 
[ultra] ulterior, ultimus, farther, farthest. 


a. Of the following the positive forms (originally comparative) 
are rare, except when used as nouns, generally in the plural: — . 


- [ext€rus] exterior, extrémus (extimus), outer, oulmost. 
- [inférus] inferior, infimus (imus), lower, lowest. 
postérus] posterior, postrémus, latter, last. 
térus] posterior, p ae th 
supérus] superior, supremus or summus, higher, highest. 
Pp P g g 
The plurals, exteri, foreigners ; posteri, posterity; superi, the 
heavenly gods ; inferi, those below, are common 





40 ADJECTIVES: COMPARISON. [A975 4,5. 


b. From juvenis, youth, sénex, old man, are formed the com- 
paratives junior, younger, senior, older. Instead of the superla- 
tive, the phrase minimus or maximus natu is used (natu 
being often understood): as, 

maximus fratrum, the eldest of the brothers ; but, 

senior fratrum, the elder of the [two] brothers. 

c. In the following, one of the forms of comparison is want- 
ing :— 

1. The Positive is wanting in deterior, deterrimus, worse, 
worst; ocior, ocissimus, swifler, swiftest; potior, potissimus, 
more and most preferable (irom potis, able]. 

2. The Comparative is wanting iu bellus, pretty ; caesius, gray ; 
falsus, false; inclitus (or inclitus), famous; invictus, wnsur- 
passed ; invitus, reluctant; novus, new (novissimum agmen, rear 
guard); pius, pious ; sacer, sacred; vetus, old; and most deriva- 
tives in ilis and bilis. 


3. The Superlative is not found in actuOsus, energetic; alacer, 
eager; arcanus, secret ; diuturnus, long-contimued ; exilis, slender ; 
ingens, huge; jejinus, sterile; longinquus, distant; opimus, 
rich ; proclivis, inclined; satur, sated; segnis, sluggish; serus, 
late; supinus, supine; taciturnus, silent; tempestivus, season- 
able; vicinus, neighboring ; dives, rich, has generally ditissimus. 


4, Adverbs. Adverbs formed from adjectives are com- 
pared in like manner: as, 


carus, dear: caré, carius, carissimé. 

miser, wretched: miseré (iter), miserius, miserrimé. 

lévis, light: leviter, levius, levissimé. 

audax, bold: audacter, audacius, audacissimé. 

bG6nus, good: béné, mélius, optimé. 

mialus, bad: malé, péjus, pessimé. 
Also, diu, long (in time), diutius diutissime ;—potius, rather, 
potissimum, chief; — saepe, often, -ius, -issime ;—satis, enough, 
satius, preferable ; — sécus, otherwise, sécius, worse ; — multum 
(multo), magis, maxime, much, more, most. 


5. Signification. Besides their regular signification, the 
forms of comparison are used as follows : — 


a. The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree 
of a quality: as, brevior, rather short, audacior, too bold. It 
is used instead of the superlative where only two are spoken of: 
as, melior imperatorum, where English often has a superlative. 


b. The Superlative (of eminence) denotes a very high degree of 
a quality: as, maximus numerus, a very great number. With 
quam, it indicates the highest degree: as, quam plurimi, as 
many as possible; quam maxime potest (quam potest), as 
much as can be. 


27:5. ZB] NUMERALS. 41 


c. With quisque, the superlative has a peculiar signification : 
thus the phrase ditissimus quisque means, all the richest ; 
primus quisque, all the first (each in his order). 


d. A high degree of a quality is denoted by such adverbs as 
admodum, valde, very; or by per or prae in composition: as, 
permagnus, very great; praealtus, very high (or deep). 


e. A low degree is indicated by sub in composition: as, sub- 
rusticus, rather countrified; or by minus, not very; minime, 
not at all; parum, not enough; non satis, not much. 


18. NuMERALS. 


1. Cardinal and Ordinal. Cardinal Numbers answer 
to the interrogative quot, how many; Ordinal Numbers to 
quotus, which in order, or one of how many. 


CARDINAL. ORDINAL. ROMAN NUMERALS. 
I. unus, una, unum, ove, primus, a, um, frst. I. 
2. duo, duz, duo, fwo.. secundus (alter), second. 11. 
3. tres, tria, three, &c. tertius, third, &c. III, 
4. quattuor quartus IV. 
5. quinque. uintus v. 
6. sex sextus VI. 
7. septem septimus VII. 
8. octo octavus VIII, 
9. novem nonus a, 
Io. decem- — decimus x 
Ir. undécim undecimus XI, 
12. duodécim duodecimus XII, 
13. tredécim tertius decimus XIII, 
14. quattuordécim quartus decimus XIV, 
15. quindécim  - quintus decfmus_~. XV. 
16. sedécim sextus decimus XVI, 
17. septéndecim _ septimus decimus XVIL. 
18. duodeviginti(octodécim) duodevicesimus XVIIL. 
Ig. undeviginti (novendécim) undevicesimus REx: 
20. viginti ‘ vicesimus (vigesimus) XX, 
21. viginti unus ov unus et viginti vicesimus primus, &c.  XXtI. 
30. triginta eS ‘-.tricesimus =~ XSx. 
40. quadraginta  _ quadragesimus XL, 
50. quinquaginta . quinquagesimus Te.OF L. 
60. sexaginta sexagesimus LX, 
70. septuaginta _ septuagesimus LXX. 
80. octoginta . octogesimus LXXX. 
go. nonaginta nonagesimus XC. 


Ioo. centum centesimus fo 


42 NUMERALS. [18: 1. 


CARDINAL. ORDINAL. ROMAN NUMERALS. 

200. ducenti, «, a ducentesimus CC; 
300. trecenti trecentesimus ccc, 
400. quadringenti quadringentesimus cccc, 
500. quingenti quingentesimus ID, or D. 
600. sexcenti sexcentesimus DC. 
700. septingenti septingentesimus DCC. 
800. octingenti octingentesimus DCCC. 
goo. nongenti nongentesimus DCCCC. 
1000. mille millesimus CID, or M. 
5000. quinque millia (milia) quinquies millesimus 199. 
10,000. decem millia (milia) decies millesimus CCID09. 
100,000. centum millia (milia) centies millesimus CCCIO099. 


Notr. — The Ordinals (except secundus, tertius, octavus) are formed 
by means of the same suffixes as superlatives. Thus decimus (com- 
pare the form infimus) may be regarded as the last of a series of ten; 
primus is a superlative of pro; the forms in -tus (quartus, quintus, sex- 
tus) may be compared with the corresponding Greek forms in -tos 
and tp@tos, superlative of wpd; nonus is contracted from novimus ; 
while the others have the regular superlative ending -simus. Of the 
exceptions, secundus is a participle of seguor ; and alter is a comparative 
form (compare -tepos in Greek). 


_@ Unus, una, unum, one, is declined like solus (§ 16, 1.), 
gen. unius and dat. uni in all genders. It often has the mean- 
ing of same, or only. It is used in the plural in this sense, as also 
to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning: as, una cCastra, 
one camp. So uni et alteri, one party and the other. 


, 6. Duo, two (also ambo, both), is thus dectined : — 


Nom. duo duae duo 
Gen. duorum duarum duorum 
Dat. duobus duabus duobus 
Acc. duos (duo) duas duo 
Abl. duobus duabus duobus 


Notr.— This form in -o is a remnant of the dual number, which 
was lost in Latin, but is found in cognate languages. 


c. Tres, tria, three, is an i-stem, and is regularly declined like 
the plural of levis. The other cardinal numbers, up to centum 
(100), are indeclinable. The multiples of ten are compounds of 
the multiple, with a fragment of decem: as, viginti — dui-ginta. 


Norr.— The forms octodecim (18), novendecim (19), are rare, unde- 
viginti, duodeviginti, &c., being commonly employed. 


d. ‘The hundreds, up to 1000, and all the ordinals, are o-stems, 
and are regularly declined like adjectives of the first and second 
declension. 7 


18° 2, 3, 4.] NUMERALS. 43 


€. Mille, a thousand, is not declined when used as an adjec- 
tive. Often in the singular, and always in the plural (milia or 
millia, thousands), it is used as a neuter noun, joined with a geni- 
tive plural: as, cum mille hominibus (or, mille hominum), 
with 1000 men; but, cum duobus milibus hominum (or, in 
poetry, cum bis mille hominibus), with 2000 men. 


_ 2. Distributives. Distributive Numerals answer to the 
interrogative quoténi, how many of a sort. 





. singuli, ove byone. 12. duodeni 200. duceni 

2. bini, wo-and-two. 13. terni deni, &c. 300. treceni 

3. terni, trini 20. viceni 400. quadringeni 
4. quaterni 30. triceni 500. quingeni 

5. quini 40. quadrageni 600. sesceni 

- seni 50. quinquageni 700. septingeni 
7. septeni 60. sexageni 800. octingeni 
8. octoni 70. septuageni goo. nongeni 

g- noveni 80. octogeni 1000. milleni 
10. deni go. nonageni 2000. bis milleni 
11. undeni 100. centeni 10,000. decies milleni 


Distributives are used as follows :— 
~ a. In the meaning of so many apiece or on each side: as 
dat singula singulis, he gives them one apiece. 

6. Instead of Cardinals, when the noun is plural in form but 
singular in meaning: as, bina castra, two camps (duo castra 
would mean two forts). ? 

c. In multiplication: as, bis bina, twice two; quater septe- 
nis diebus, i.e., in four weeks. 

d. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers, particularly where 
pairs or sets are spoken of: as, bina hastilia, two shafts (each 
person usually carrying two). 

3. Numeral Adverbs. The numeral adverbs answer to 
the interrogative quotiens (quoties), how often. Those of 
the higher numbers, including five, have the termination iens 
(ies) added to the stem of Cardinals. | 
semel, once. Io. decies 60. sexagies 


. bis, ¢wice. II. undecies 70. septuagies 

. ter, thrice. » 12. duodecies 80. octogies 

» quater 13. ter et decies, &c. go. nonagies 

- quinquies (ens) 20. vicies 100. centies 

+ sexies 21. semel et vicies 200. ducenties 

. septies 30. tricies 300. ter centies 

. octies 40. quadragies 1000. milies 

. nonies 50. quinquagies 10,000. decies milies 





4. The adjectives simplex (icis), single; duplex, double; 
triplex, triple; quadriiplex, quintuplex, multiplex, &c., are 
called mu/tiplicatives. ‘They are compounds of plico (as in Eng- 
lish two fold) ; and are inflected as adjectives of one termination, © 


44. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. (A8 F 322,22. 


PRONOUNS. 


19. PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE. 


i. The Personal Pronouns of the first person are ego, J, 
nos, we; of the second person, tu, thou, Vos, ye or you. 





First PEerson. SECOND PERSON. 
Nom. ego, I nos, we tu, thou vos, ye or you 
Gen. mei, of me nostrum(tri), of us tui vestrum (tri) 
Dat. mihi, fo me nobis, to us tibi vobis 
Ace. me, me nos, ws te vos 
Vo. — tu vos 
Abl. me, by me _ nobis, by us te vobis 


These pronouns are also used reflexively: as, ipse te nimium 
laudas, you praise yourself too much. 

2. The pronouns of the third person — he, she, tt, they — 
are wanting in Latin, a demonstrative being sometimes used. 

3. The Reflexive pronoun of the third person (referring 
to the subject of the sentence or clause, and hence used only 
in the oblique cases) is the same in the singular and plural: as, 

Gen. sui, of himself, herself, themselves. 


Dat. sibi, fo m8 + as 
Ace. se, Sese 9 ” 9 
Abl. se, with ,, 99 2 


Notre. — There is an old form of genitive in is: as, mis, tis, sis; 
also an accusative and ablative med, ted, sed. 


a. From these pronouns are formed the Possessive Adjectives 
meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester (voster), declined as in § 16, I. - 


b. The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are the contracted geni- 
tive plural of the possessives noster, vester.* (So in early and 
late Latin we find una vestrarum.) They are used partitively. 


c. The genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, are the geni- 
tive singular of the neuter possessives, meum, &c., meaning my, 
your, our interest or concern. ‘They are used objectively. 


d. The reciprocal (each other) is expressed by inter se or 
alter —alterum: as, inter se amant, they love each other. 

e. The. preposition cum, with, is joined enclitically with the 
ablative of the pronouns: as, tecum sedet, he sits with you. 


20: 1, 2.] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 45 


f. To the personal (and sometimes to the adjective) pronouns 
enclitics are joined for emphasis: — met to all the pronouns; -te 
to tu; -pte to the abl. sing. of the adjectives, and in early Latin 
to the others: as, vosmetipsos proditis, you betray your own 
very selves; suopte pondere, by its own weight. 


20. DEMONSTRATIVE. 


1. The Demonstrative Pronouns are hic, this; is, ille, 
iste, that ; with the Intensive ipse, self, and idem, same. 


Norse. — These are combinations of o and i-stems, which are not 
clearly distinguishable. Hic is a compound of the stem ho- with 
the demonstrative -ce, which appears in full in early Latin (hice), 
and when followed by the enclitic -me (hicine). In most of the cases 
it is shortened to c, and in many lost; but it is appended for empha- 
sis to those that do not regularly retain it (hujusce). In early Latin 
c alone is retained in some of these (horunc). Ile and iste are 
sometimes found with the same enclitic (illic, istuc). 


a. Ille is a later form of ollus (olle), which is sometimes used 
by the poets; a gen. sing. in i, ae, i, occurs in ille and iste. 


6b. Iste is sometimes found in early writers in the form ste, &c., 
with the entire loss of the first syllable; and the i of ipse and 
ille is very often found shortened. 


c. Ipse is compounded of is and -pse (for pte, from the same 
root as potis), meaning self. The first part was originally de- 
clined, as in reapse (for re eapse), in fact. An old form ipsus 
occurs. Idem is the demonstrative is with the aflix -dem., 

2. These demonstratives are used either with nouns as 
Adjectives, or alone as Pronouns; and, from their significa- 


tion, cannot (except ipse) have a vocative. 


This. That. 
Sing. M. F. N. M. F. N. 

‘ Nom. hic haec hoc is ea id 
Gen. hujus hujus  hujus ejus ejus ejus 
Dat. huic huic huic ei ei 0's 
Ace. hune hanc hoc eum eam id 
Abl. hoc hac hoc eo ea eo 
Plur. These. Those. 

Nom. hi hae - haec ii (ei) eae ea 
Gen. horum harum horum eorum earum eorum 
Dat. his his his eis or iis (is) 
Acé. hos has haec eos eas ea 


Abl. his his his eis or iis (is) 


— 
D> 
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= 
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2 
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= 
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= 
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a 
ts 
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Z 
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Z 
ea 
SR, 
nN 
°o 
XN 











That Self. 
SING. M ¥. N. M. ¥. N. 
N. ille illa illud ipse ipsa ipsum 
G. illius illius illius ipsius ipsius ipsius 
D. illi illi illi ipsi psi ipsi 
‘A. illum illam illud ipsum ipsam ipsum 
Jf a ipse ipsa ipsum 
A. illo illa illo ipso ips ipso 
PLUR Those Selves 
N. illi illee illa ipsi ips ipsa 
G illorum illarum illorum ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum 
D. illis illis s ipsis ipsis ipsis 
A. illos illas illa ipsos ipsas ipsa 
Vv. ipsi ipsee ipsa 
A. illis illis illis ipsis ipsis Dpsis 

f The Same. 

SING. PLUR. 
N. idem eidem idem iidem esedem eidem 
G. ejusdem ejusdem ejusdem eorundem earundem eorundem 
D. eidem eidem erdem eisdem or iisdem 
A. eundem eandem idem eosdem easdem  e&dem 
A. eodem eadem eodem eisdem or iisdem 


a. Hic is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, 
thought, or on the written page) ; hence called the demonstrative 
of the first person. It is sometimes used of the speaker himself; 
sometimes for ‘* the latter” of two things mentioned. 


b. Ile is used of what is remote (in time, &c.) ; hence called 
the demonstrative of the third person. It is sometimes used to 
mean ‘‘the former”; also (usually following its noun) of what is 
JSamous or well-known ; often (especially the neuter illud) to mean 
‘* the following.” 


_ € Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness ; 
often of the person addressed, — hence called the demonstrative of 
the second person; especially of one’s opponent, frequently imply- 
ing contempt. It is declined like ille. 


d. Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others, not denoting 
any special object, but referring to one just mentioned, or to be 
explained by a relative. It is used oftener than the others as a 
personal pronoun; and is often merely a correlative to the relative 
qui: as, eum quem, one whom; eum consulem qui non du- 
bitet (Cic.), a consul who will not hesitate. 


e. Ipse, may be used with a personal pronoun, as nos ipsi 
(nosmetipsi), we ourselves; or independently (the verb contain- 
ing the pronoun), as, ipsi adestis, you are yourselves present ; or 
with a noun, as ipsi fontes (Virg.), the very fountains. 


_ Notge.— In English, the pronouns himself, &c., are used both inten- 
sively (as, he will come himself ), or reflexively (as, he will kill himself’): 
in Latin the former would be translated ipse; the latter se, or sese. 


21: 1, 2.] RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND INDEFINITE. 47 


21, Revative, INTERROGATIVE, AND INDEFINITE. 


1. The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite pronouns 
are the same; viz., qui, quis (who, who? any), with their 
compounds and derivatives. 


Note. — The stem has two forms, quo- and qui-.. From the latter 
are formed quis, quid, quem, quibus, qui (abl.), while guz, gue, are prob- 
ably lengthened forms of qué, qué, made by the addition of the 
demonstrative particle i. 


Sing. M. F. N. 

Nom. qui, quis? quae quéd, quid? 
Gen. cljus (whose) citijus cujus 

Dat. cui cui cui 

Ace. quem (whom) quam quod, quid? 
Abl. quo _ qua quo 

Plur. 

Nom. qui quae quae 

Gen. quorum gquarum “quorum 

Dat. quibus or quis 

Ace. quos quas quae 

Abl. quibus or quis 


Case Forms. a. The Relative has always qui and quod 
in the nom. sing. The Interrogative and Indefinite have quis, 
quid substantive, and qui, quod adjective. But quis and qui are 
sometimes used for each other. (For quis, indef., see 2, d.) 


b. Old forms for the gen. and dat. are quoius, quoi. A loca- 
tive cui occurs only in the form cuicuimédi, of whatever sort. 


c. The form qui is used for the ablative of both numbers and all 
genders; but especially as an adverb (how, by which way, in any 
way), and in the combination quicum, as interrogative or in- 
definite relative. 


d. A nom. plur. qués (stem qui-) is found in early Latin. 
The dat. and abl. quis (stem qu6-) is old, but not infrequent. 


e. The preposition cum is joined enclitically to all forms of the 
ablative, as with the personal pronouns. 
2. The stems quo and qui are variously compounded. 


a. The suffix -cunque (-cumque) added to the relative makes 
an Indefinite-relative, which is declined as the simple word: as, 


quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatever. 


Notre.— This suffix, with the same meaning, may be used with 
any relative: as, qualiscunque, of whatever sort; quandocunque 
(quandoque), whenever j ; ubicunque, wherever. 


48 RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND INDEFINITE. [21: 2, 


b. The interrogative form doubled also makes an indefinite- 
relative: as, quisquis, whoever (so utut, however, ubiubi, wher- 
ever). Of quisquis both parts are declined, but the feminine is 
wanting: as, 

Nom. quisquis (quiqui) quidquid (quicquid) 


Gen. cujuscujus 

Dat. cuicui 

Ace. quemquem quidquid (quicquid) 
Abl. quoquo 


Prur. Nom. quiqui Dat., Abl, quibusquibus 


This compound is rare, except in the forms quisquis, quicquid, 
and quoquo. ‘The case-form quamquam is used as a conjunc- 
tion, although (lit. however). Quiqui is an early form. 

c. Indefinite Compounds are the following: quispiam, any ; 
quisquam, any-at-all; quivis, quilibet, any-you-please ; quidam, 
a, acertain. Of these the first part is inflected like quis, qui, 
with quid or quod in the neuter. 

ad. In aliquis, any, siquis, if any, nequis, lest any, ecquis, 
numquis, whether any, the-second part is declined like quis, but 
having qua for quae, except in the nom. plur. feminine. Si quis, 
ne quis, num quis, are better written separately. The simple 
form quis is rare except in these combinations; and the com- 
pounds quispiam, aliquis (si quis, if any one; si aliquis, if 
some one), are often used in these, being rather more emphatic. 

The compounds of quis (indef.) are thus declined: — 


aliquis aliqua aliquid aliqui aliquse aliqua 
alicujus (or-quod) aliquorum aliquarum aliquorum 
alicul %. : aliquibus 
aliquem aliquam aliquid aliquos aliquas aliqua 
aliquo aliqua aliquo aliquibus 
Norte. — Aliquis is compounded with ali-, old stem of alius, but 
with weakened meaning. Ecquis is compounded with en. 


e. The enclitic -que added to the indefinite gives a Universal: 
as, quisque, every one; ubique, everywhere (so uterque, either of 
two, or both). Of quisque the first part is declined. In the 
compound unusquisque, both parts are declined, and sometimes 
separated by other words. 

f. The relative and interrogative have a possessive adjective 
cujus (stem cujo-), whose; and a patrial cujas (stem cujat-), 
of what country. 

g- Quantus, how great, qualis, of what sort, are derivative 
adjectives from the same stem, and are uséd as interrogative 
or relative, corresponding to the demonstratives tantus, talis. 
Quam, how, is an accusative of the same stem, corresponding to 
the case-form tam, so. 

h. Quisquam, with ullus, any, unquam, ever, usquam, any- 
where, are chiefly used in negative, interrogative, or conditional 
sentences, or after quam, than; sine, without ; vix, scarcely. 


? 


22.) a CORRELATIVES. 49 


22. CORRELATIVES. 


Many adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs are found in several 
corresponding forms, as, demonstrative, relative, interrogative, 
and indefinite. These are called CorreLatives. Their 
forms are seen in the following Table: — 





DEMONSTR. RELAT. INTERROG. INDEF. REL. INDEF. 
is, that qui quis? quisquis aliquis 
tantus, so great quantus quantus ? | aliquantus 
talis, such qualis qualis ? ¥ 
ibi, there ubi ubi ? ubitibi alictibi 
eo, thither quo - quo? quoquo —_aliquo 
ea, that way qua qua? quaqua = aliqua 
inde, thence unde unde? * alicunde 
tum, then quum, cum quando? . aliquando 
tot, so many quot quot? quotquot aliquot 
toties, so often quoties quoties ? r aliquoties 


* Compounds with -cumque. 


a. The forms tot, quot, aliquot, totidem (originally toti), 
are indeclinable, and may take any gender, number, or case: as, 


per tot annos, tot prceliis, tot imperatores (Cic.), so many 
commanders, for so many years, in so many battles. 


b. The correlative of the second member is often to be ren- 
dered simply as: thus, 


tantum argenti quantum aeris, as much silver as copper. 


c. A frequent form of correlative is found in the ablatives quo 
or quanto, by how much; eo or tanto, by so much, used with 
comparatives (rendered in English the . . the): as, 


quo magis conatur, eo minus discit, the more he tries the less 
‘he learns. 


d. Certain adverbs and conjunctions are often used correla- 

tively: as, . 

et... et, both... and. 

ut .. . ita (sic), as (while). . . so (yet). 

aut (vel) ... aut (vel), cither.. . or. 

sive (seu) ... sive, whether... or. 

tam ... quam, so (as)... as. 

cum (tum)...tum, both... and; not only... but also. 

idem ... qui, the same... as. 


Notr.—For the reciprocal use of alius and alter, see Syntax 
(§ 47, 9). : 


a0 VERBS: STRUCTURE. [23: 1, 263% 


VERBS. 


23. STRUCTURE. 


a. The forms of a Latin verb are the following : — 

a. Voices: Active and Passive. 

b. Moops: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, Infinitive. 

C. PARTICIPLES: Active, Present and Future. 

Passive, Perfect and Gerundive. 
d. VrersaL Nouns: Gerund and Supine. 
e. Trensres: Present, Imperfect, Future; Perfect, Pluperfect, 
Future-Perfect. 

-  f. There are also separate terminations of inflection for each 
of the three Persons, Singular and Plural (§ 28). 


Nors. — The Infinitives, Participles, Gerund, and Supine are not 
strictly parts of the verb, as having no personal terminations, but 
having the form and (in general) the construction of nouns. They 
were, however, regarded and used as verbal forms by the Romans. 


2. Special forms for the following tenses are wanting in 
certain parts of the verb: — 


a. In the Subjunctive mood, the future and future-perfect. 


Norr.— These are wanting, because the original meaning and 
most of the uses of this mood are future. In some cases, the future 
participle with the corresponding tense of esse is used. 


b. In the Passive voice, the perfect, pluperfect, and future-per- 
fect, which are supplied by corresponding tenses of esse, to be, 
with the Perfect Participle. 


c. In the Imperative mood only two tenses are found, — present 
and fulure. In the Infinitive only the present, perfect, and future. 


$3. The Active and Passive voices are equivalent to the 
corresponding English forms, except that the tenses of the 
passive are used with more exactness. Thus vocatur means, 
he is [being | called, i.e., some one is now calling him; voca- 
tus est, he zs called, i.e., the action is now over. 


Nore. — The passive voice often has a reflexive meaning, as, indui- 
tur vestem, fe puts on his clothes ; and many verbs are active in mean- 
ing though passive in form. (Sec § 35, “‘ Deponents.’’) 


24, 25.] - MOODS — PARTICIPLES. 51 


24. Moons. 


1. The Indicative is used for direct assertion or interroga- 
tion. 


2. The Subjunctive is used chiefly in commands, condi- 
tions, and dependent clauses. 


Note. — The Latin Subjunctive is usually translated, in grammars, 
by the English potential forms, may, might, could, would, &c., to distin- 
guish it from the Indicative, because the English has no subjunctive 
in general use. But the subjunctive is used in many cases where we 
use the indicative ; and we use the potential in many cases where the 
Latin employs a separate verb. Thus J may write (except when it 
follows ut, in order that) is not scribam (subj.), but licet mihi scri- 
bere ; / can write is possum scribere; J would write is scribam, 
scriberem, or scribere velim (vellem) ; J should write, if, &c., scri- 
berem si ... or (implying duty) oportet me scribere. A few ex- 
amples of the use of the subjunctive may be seen in the following : — 

eamus, let us go. ne cunctemur, let us not linger. 

quid morer, why should I delay ? 

si tardior sim iratus sit, 7f J should be too late he would be angry. 
adsum ut videam, J am here to see [that I may see]. 
imperat ut scribam, he orders me to write. 

nescio quid scribam, J know not what to write. 

licet eas, you may go; cave cadas, don’t fall. 

vereor ne eat, J fear he will go (vereor ut, J fear he will not). 
sunt qui putent, there are some who think. 
si ita esset non manerem, #f it were so I would not stay. 
quz cum dixisset abiit, when he had said this he went away. 


3. The Imperative is used for exhortation or command ; 
but its place is often supplied by the Subjunctive. 


4. The Infinitive is used as an indeclinable noun, as the 
subject or object of another verb; but often takes the place 
of one of the other moods. 

Nore. — For the Syntax of the Moods, see § 57, e 


25. PARTICIPLES. 


1. The Present participle has the same meaning as the 
English participle in -ing: as, vocans, calling; regentes, 
those ruling. (For its inflection, see § 16, 3.) 

2, The Future participle is rarely used, except with tenses 
of esse, to be (see § 40), or to express purpose: as, urbs 
est casura, the city is about to fall; venit auditurus, he came 
to hear. 


o2 GERUND AND SUPINE — TENSES. [26, 27. 


3. The Perfect participle is used to form certain tenses 
of the passive, and often has simply an adjective meaning: 
as, vocatus est, he was (has been) called; tectus, sheltered ; 
acceptus, acceptable ; ictus, having been struck. 


Norse. — There is no perfect active or present passive participle in 
Latin. The perfect participle of deponents, however, is generally 
used in an active sense, as secutus, having followed. In other cases 
some different construction is used: as, cum venisset, having come 
(when he had come); equitatu praemisso, having sent forward the cav- 
alry (the cavalry having been sent forward); dum verberatur, while 
being struck (= tTumrdpevos). 

For the Syntax of these participles, see § 72. 

4. The Gerundive (sometimes called the future passive 
participle) has, with tenses of esse, the meaning ought or 
must (see § 40): as, audiendus est, he must be heard. But, 
in the oblique cases, it is oftener to be translated as if it were 
an active participle, and governed the word it agrees with: as, 


ad petendam pacem, to seek peace (§ 78). 


26. GERUND AND SoupPINE. 


1. The Gerund is the neuter singular of the Gerundive. 
It is a verbal noun, corresponding to the English participial 
noun in -ing: as, loquendi causa, for the sake of speaking. 


2. The Supines are the accusative and ablative (or dative) 
of a verbal noun of the fourth declension (§ 12, 4, a). They 
are generally translated by the English Infinitive of purpose : 
as, venit spectatum, he came & see; mirabile dictu, wonder- 
Sul to tell. 


Norse. — The Supine in tum is the regular Infinitive in Sanskrit. 


27. TEensEs. 


1. The tenses of a Latin verb are of two classes: (1) 
those denoting incomplete action, the Present, Imperfect, and 
Future; (2) those denoting completed action, the Perfect, 
Pluperfect, and Future-Perfect. 

- Those of the former class, together with the Perfect, are 
also used to denote indefinite action. 


S79 203, 4:6. TENSES. 53 


2. The Present, Future, Pluperfect, and Future-Perfect 
have the same meaning as the corresponding tenses in Eng- 
lish, but are distinguished more accurately in their use: as, 
diu aegroto, J have long been [and still am] sick. 
cum venero scribam, when I come [shall have come] J will write. 

3. The Perfect and Imperfect are both used to denote 
past time, the former usually to tell a simple fact ; the latter, 
a continued action, or a condition of things. The Imperfect 
is variously rendered in English: as, 
dicébat, he said, he was saying, or he used to say; saepe dicébat, 

he would often say ; dictitabat, he kept saying. 
The Perfect has two separate uses, distinguished as definite and 
historical, corresponding to the English perfect (compound) 
and preterite (imperfect) : as, | 
vocavit, he has called (definite), or he called (historical). 


Note. —In Latin, and in the languages derived from Latin (as 
Italian and French), there are two past tenses, — the Perfect or Pret- 
erite (aorist), which merely states that the fact took place ; and the Im- 
perfect, which is used for description, or to indicate that the action was 
an progress. In the Northern languages (Germanic or Gothic, includ- 
ing English), the same tense serves for both: as, 


longius prosequi vetuit, quod loci naturam ignorabat, he forbade 
to follow farther, because he was ignorant of the nature of the ground 
(B. G. v. 9.). 


4, The tenses of completed action are supplied in the Pas- 
sive voice by adding the corresponding tenses of incomplete 


action of esse to the Perfect Participle: as, occisus est, he 
was slain, or, he has been slain. 


5. The tenses of a Latin verb are formed upon three dif- 
ferent stems, called the present, the perfect, and the supine 
stems. 

_ @ The tenses of incomplete action, both active and passive, are 
formed upon the Present stem. 


b. The tenses of completed action in the active voice are formed 
upon the Perfect stem. 


c. The perfect participle, which is used in the tenses of 


completed action in the passive voice, is formed upon the Supine 
stem. 


54. VERB FORMS. +) ZB: -By Be 


28. Vers Forms. 


1. Personal endings. Verbs have terminations for 
each of the three persons, both singular and plural, active and 
passive. ‘These terminations are fragments of old pronouns, 
whose signification is thus added to that of the verb-stem. 


ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL, 
i ges mus r mur 
2. 8 tis ris mini 
ae nt tur ntur 


a, The present and perfect indicative have lost the m, and end 
in the modified stem-vowels o and i Except sum, J am, and 
inquam, J say. (Here o stands for m with a preceding vowel.) 


6. The second po of the perfect indicative has for the sin- 
gular sti, and for the plural stis. The third person plural has an 
ending of verbal origin, érunt. 


c. The Imperative has special terminations : 


ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
Sing. 2. [lost] Plur. 2. te, tote Sing. 2. re Plur. 2, mini 
o.. to 3. nto 3. tor 3. ntor 


Notr.— The Passive is a peculiar Latin middle (or reflexive) 
form, made by adding se to the forms of the active voice, with some 
abrasion of their endings (the original form of se, sva, was not 
limited to the third person). Thus amor = amo-se, amaris = amasise, 
amatur =amatise. ‘The above view seems the most probable, in spite 
of some objections. The ending mini in the second person plural 
of the passive is a remnant of the participial form found in the Greek 
-pEVvoS. 

p All Latin words ending in t, except a few in ot, ut, with et, at, 
sat, are third persons of verbs; all in nt are third persons plural. 
In dumtaxat, however, licet, although, and the indefinite pronouns in 

-libet, the meanings of the verbs are disguised. 


2. Changes of Stem. These terminations appear in all 
the tenses of the verb; but the Stem in many parts is variously 
modified to receive them, sometimes by changes in its form, 
and sometimes by additions at the end. 


a. The Present indicative and subjunctive, the Imperative, 
and sometimes the Future, add the personal endings directly to 
the present stem, with or without change of vowel: as, do, das 
dat (stem da-) ; vOcem (stem vica-). 


28: 2, 3.] -VERB-FORMS. BS 


b. The Perfect indicative also sometimes adds them directly ; 
but to another form of the root called the perfect stem: as, dedi, 
dedisti, dedit. 

Norse. — The i of the Perfect, which in early Latin is always long 
(ei, i, e) except before mus, is of doubtful origin. It is treated tor 
convenience as part of the stem, as it is in dedi, steti, where it takes 
the place of the vowel a. In the suffixes vi (= fui) and si (= Skr. 
asa), and in the pertects of consonant-roots, it seems to be, but prob- 
ably is not, a mere connecting vowel. The s before ti and tis is 
also anomalous. Most scholars regard it as a remnant of es; but it 
may be, like the others, of pronominal origin. 


c. All other true verbal forms are compounded with a suffix — 
originally a verb—which contains the personal endings: as, 
vocav-eram, vocav-éro, voca-bo. ‘The first person of the 
Perfect, thus compounded, produces another form of perfect stem: 
as, voca-vi. 


d. The Present Infinitive Active, Present Participle, and 
Gerundive, add nominal (noun or adjective) suffixes to the present 
slem: as, vocare, vocans (antis), vocandus. 


e. The Perfect infinitive adds an infinitive (esse) already 
formed to the perfect stem: as, vocavisse (= vocavi-esse). 


f. The Perfect and Future Participles and the Supine are 
formed upon what is called a supine stem, which adds t- either to 
the Present stem or to the Root: as, vocat-, tect- (root tég-). 

Nore. — Strictly, these have no common stem, but are formed 
with special suffixes (to-, turo-, tu-). As, however, the form to 
which they are added is the same for each, and as the suffixes all 
begin with t, it is convenient to give the name supine stem to the form 
in t. The participle in to- corresponds to the Greek verbal -ros; that 
in turo- is a development of the noun of agency ending in -tor (as 
victor, victurus); that in tu- is an abstract noun of the fourth 
declension (§ 12, 4, a). 

gq. The Present Infinitive Passive is an anomalous form, made 
by adding -ri or i to the present stem: as, voco, vocari; tego, 
tégi. (When i is added, the final vowel of the stem disappears.) 
It was anciently followed by -ér. 


h. The Future Infinitive Passive is supplied by the supine in 
tum with the infinitive passive of eo, to go, used Supereauidey' as, 
vocatumi iri, to be about to be called. 

Notr.— The construction of this infinitive is different from the 
others, the form in tum being invariable, and the apparent subject 
accusative being really the object of the supine taken actively. Few 
verbs in fact have this form, for which fore ut with the subjunctive 
is often found. 


3. Verb-Endings. The scheme of Verb-Endings, as 


they are formed by suffixes or personal endings, is as fol- 
lows: — 


56 VERB-FORMS. [28: 3. 
: a. Verbal Forms. 
ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. 
PRESENT. 
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
[o] m (vowel-change) [or] r (vowel-change) 
s s ris or re ris or re 
t t tur tur 
mus mus mur mur 
tis tis mini mini 
nt nt ntur ntur 
IMPERFECT. 
bam rem bar rer 
bas res baris (re) réris(re) 
bat ret batur rétur 
bamus rémus bamur rémur 
batis rétis bamini remini 
bant rent bantur rentur 
FUTURE. 
bo, or am (vowel-change) bor, or ar (vowel-change) 
bis es béris(re) eris(re) 
bit et bitur étur 
bimus emus bimur eémur 
bitis étis bimini emini 
bunt ent buntur entur 
PERFECT. 
i oe Sa A jo sim 
isti éris tum) es sis 
it érit est sit 
imap ore ti (tae, fonts penieag 
istis eritis estis sitis 
érunt érint ta) sunt sint 
or 6re 
PLUPERFECT. 
éram issem éram essem 
éras isses rain jer 
esses 
érat isset 1) erat esset 
eramus issémus . eramus essémus 
eratis issétis | as rai essétis 
érant issent ta) (erant essent 


29: 1.) 


éro 
és 
érit 
erimus 
eritis 
érint 


PRESENT. 
PERFECT. 


FuTuURE. 


PRESENT. 
PERFECT. 


FUTURE. 
‘SUPINE. 


ESSE AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 57 


Four. Prerrect. 


tus (ta, big 
eris 
9m) erit 
ti (tae, ane 
eritis 
| *) erunt 
IMPERATIVE. 
— | re 
to tor 
te, tote mini 
nto ntor 


b. Nominal. Forms. 








INFINITIVE. : 
re (Pres. stem)  viori(oldrier,ier) 
sse (Perf. stem) _ tus (a, um) esse 
turus (a,um) esse tum iri 

PaRTICIPLE. 
ns, ntis 

tus, a, um 

turus (surus),a,um GERUNDIVE. ndus, a, um 
tum, tu (Present stem) 


Nort. — The origin and meaning of some of the above verb-end- 
ings may be given as follows. The suffix bam is an imperfect of 
BHU, which appears in fui, futurus, fio, the Greek iw, and English 
be ;—rem (for sem) is an optative or subjunctive imperfect of Es, 
which appears in sum, eipl, am, &c.;—bo is a future, and Vi a ~ 
perfect, of BHU ;—si is a perfect of Es, and is kindred with the 
aorist-ending oa, though not of the same formation ;—erim is an 
optative form of ES corresponding to sim ;—ero is the future of es 


(for es=io). 


29. Esse AND ITs COMPOUNDS. 


The verb esse, ¢o be, is both irregular and defective, having 
no gerund or supine, and no participle but the future. 


Nore. — The present participle, which should be sens (compare 
Sanskrit sant), appears in that form in abssens, pree-sens; and as 
ens (compare @v) in pot-ens. The simple form ens is sometimes 
found in late or philosophical Latin as a participle or abstract noun, 
in the forms ens, Being ; entia, thinas which are. 


8* 


58, ESSE AND ITS COMPOUNDS, [29: 1, 


PrincipaL Parts: Present, sum, J am. 
Infinitive, esse, to be. 
Perfect, fui, I was or have been. 
Future Participle, futtirus, about to be, 


PRESENT. 
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Sine. 1. sum, J am. sim, I am, may be, &c. (see 
2. &s, thou art. sis [examples on p. 51). 
3. est, he (she, it) is. sit 
Prior. 1. stimus, we are. simus 
2. estis, you are. sitis 
3. sunt, they are. sint 
IMPERFECT. 
Sina. 1. Sram, J was. essem, was (would or férem 
2. &ras, thou wast. esses, might be, §c.). fdres 
3. Erat, he was. _ esset fdret 
Priur. 1. eramus, we were. essémus | 
2. eratis, you were. essétis 
3. erant, they were. essent fSrent 
3 FUTURE. : 
Stina. 1. Gro, J shall be. 
2. Gris, thou wilt be. 
3. Grit, he will be. 
Pur. 1. erimus, we shall be. 
2. eritis, you will be. 
3. Grunt, they will be. 
| _ PERFECT. 
Sine. 1. fui, J was (have been). fuérim, was (have been, may 
2. fuisti, thou wast. fuéris [have been). 
3. fuit, he was. fuérit 
Prior. 1. fulmus, we were. fuerimus 
2. fuistis, you were. fueritis 
3. fuérunt, they were. fuérint 


or fuére. . 


29: 1.] ESSE AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 59 


PLUPERFECT. 


. fuéram, J had been. fuissem, had been (might or 
. fuéras, thou hadst been. fuisses [would have been). 
. fuérat, he had been. fuisset 


1 
2 
3 

Prior. 1. fueramus, we had been. fuiss@mus 
2. fueratis, you had been. fuissétis 
3. fuérant, they had been. fuissent 


FuTurE PERFECT. 


1. fuéro, J shall have been. 

2. fuéris, thou wilt have been. 
3. fuérit, he will have been. 
1 
2 
3 


. fuerimus, we shall have been. 
. fueritis, you will have been. 
. fuerint, they will have been. 


IMPERATIVE. 
PRESENT. 6s, be thou. este, be ye. 


Furure. esto, thou shalt be. estote, ye shall be. 
esto, he shall be. sunto, they shall be. 


INFINITIVE. 


PRESENT. esse, fo be. 

PerFEcT. fuisse, to have been. 

Furure. fdre or futurus esse, to be about to be. 
Future ParticipLe. futurus, a, um, about to be. 


Rare Forms. Fut. Indic. escit, escunt (strictly inchoative pres., 
§ 39). Pres. Subj. siem, fuam. 

Nore. — The root of the verb esse is es-, which in the imperfect 
is changed to er- (§ 1, 3, e), and in many cases is shortened to s-. 
Some of its modifications, as found in several languages more or less 
distantly related to Latin, may be seen in the following Table ;— the 
“Indo-European ” being the primitive or theoretic form, and the form 
sy@m corresponding to the Latin siem, sim : — 


Ind.- Eur. Sanskrit. Greek. Slavonic. Lithuanian. 
as=mi as-mi sydm (opt.) ape t yes-mi es-mi 
as=Si as-i syas éoo yes-si -- es-i 

- aseti as-ti syat éori yes-ti es- ti 
as=masi Ss-mas  sydma éopév yes-mu ___es-me 
as-tasi s-tha sydta éoré yes-te es-te 
as-anti S-anti  syus évri Tt s-unti es-ti 

+ Old Form. 


The Perfect and Supine stems, fui, futu-, are kindred with the Greek 


(pv, was), and with the English be, 


60 | CONJUGATION. [29, 30. 


a. The verb esse is compounded, without any change of its 
inflection, with many prepositions. In the compound prodesse, 
to profit, pro retains its original d@ where followed by e: as, 
prosum, prodes, prodest, prostimus, prodestis, prosunt. 


b. Esse is also compounded with the adjective potis or pote, 
able, in the verb posse. Its inflection, with that of prodesse, is 
given in the following : — 


PRESENT. | 
INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. 
possum, J can. possim prosum prosim 
potes, thou canst. possis prodes prosis 
potest, he can. possit prodest prosit 
posstimus, we can. possimus prostimus prosimus 
potestis, you can. possitis prodestis prositis 
possunt, they can. possint prosunt prosint 
IMPERFECT. 
potéram possem prodéram prodessem 
FUTURE. 
potéro prodéro 
PERFECT. 
potui potuérim profui profuérim 
PLUPERFECT. 
potuéram potuissem profuéram profuissem 
FuTURE PERFECT. 7 
potuéro profuéro 
IMPERATIVE. 
oe prodes, prodesto, &c. 
INFINITIVE. 
Pr. posse Perr. potuisse Pr. prodesse Perr. profuisse 
PaRTICIPLES. 
[potens, powerful. ] profuturus, about to help. 


30. ConsUGATION. 

There are in Latin four principal forms of Present 
Stems, ending respectively in a, 6, 6,1. With this dif- 
ference of stem most of the other differences of conju- 
gation coincide. 

Verbs are accordingly classed in four regular 
conjugations, distinguished by the vowel before re in 
the Present Infinitive Active, which is the same in 
each case as those given above. 


30: I, 2.] CONJUGATION. 61 


Nore. — This mode of classification was invented by the Roman | 


grammarians, and has been generally adopted by the moderns. In 


fact, however, the vowels a, e, i (/ong), found in the First, Second, | 
and Fourth Conjugations, are different corruptions of the form aya, ° 


which in the original language was added to roots in one form of 


present stems. All other forms of present stems, except a few 


unmodified, had originally, or received in Latin, a suffix ending 
in (or consisting of) a short, which was corrupted to e or i short. 
These are collected in the Third Conjugation. A few roots -ending 
in a vowel were drawn — perhaps by vowel-increase — into the analogy 


; 


of the other conjugations; and a few of the fourth conjugation had - 


1¥A instead of aya. 

1. First Conjugation. Most verbs of the first conju- 
gation retain the stem-vowel (@) throughout, except in the 
present indicative, which loses it before 0, and the present sub- 
junctive, where it is changed to 6 (see § 28, 1, a). 


Nore. — Dare, to give — stem originally da —retains a short, ex- 


cept in da and das. The Subjunctive with changed vowel (e) corre- 
sponds to the Greek and Sanskrit Optative, and is formed by the 
addition of a tense of i, to go, a+-i becoming e. 

a. In the Future, the ending -bo, &c., is added to the present 
stem: as, vocabo. 

~ 6. The Perfect stem adds vi to that of the present: as, 

vocavi. But | | 

1. A few verbs, either always or occasionally, add vi not to the 
present stem, but to the root, v becoming u: as, sono, sonui 
(see p. 67). : 

2. Two verbs, do, sto, form their perfect stem by reduplication : 
dédi, stéti. 

ce. The Supine stem adds t to the present stem; but verbs that 
add vi to the root add t in like manner, sometimes with a connect- 
ing vowel: as, seco, sectus; domo, domitus. 


2. Second Conjugation. Only a few verbs of the sec- 
ond conjugation retain € throughout. | 


a. The Present Indicative has e before o in the first person ; 
in the Present. Subjunctive a (originally @) is inserted after e: as, 
deleo, deleam. | 

Note. — ‘The a in the present subjunctive is borrowed from the 
third conjugation. (See next head, 3, ¢, n.) 


6b. The Future (as in the first conjugation) adds -bo, &c., to 
the present stem: as, delébo. 


c. Ina few verbs, the Perfect stem adds vi to the present, as 
deleo, delévi; but in most this termination is added to the 
root, as moneo, monui (see p. 69). 


62 CONJUGATION. [30: 3. 


d. In a few, the root is reduplicated, and in several -si is 
added to the root, or its vowel is strengthened: as, tondeo, 
totondi; mAneo, mansi; lugeo, luxi; caveo, cavi. 


e. For the Supine stem, those which add -vi to the stem add t 
also to the stem; those which add vi to the root add t to the root, 
with the connecting-vowel i; those which form the perfect other- 
wise add t (or its weakened form s) to the root: as, delétus, 
monitus, tonsus, mansus, cautus. 


3. Third Conjugation. To the third conjugation be- 
long those verbs which form the present stem in any other 
way than by adding a long vowel to the root. 


a. The Present Stem is formed in eight different ways, in all 
of which € (original 4), or else a suffix containing it, is added to 
the Root. Besides this addition, — 


1. The vowel of the root is lengthened (vowel-increase) : as in 
diico, fido, ntbo (compare diicis, perfidus, prontiba; also Gr. 
Asizw, root Aim-). 


2. The root is reduplicated: as in sisto, bibo, gigno, from the 
root sta- (in status), pa- (in pdtus), gén- (in génus; compare 
yiyvouat, root yev-). 

3. The root is strengthened by the insertion of n (m) before its 
final consonant: as in findo, frango, cumbo (compare think, 
thought; pavéave, root pad-). 


4. Final 1 or r of the root is doubled by assimilation of an 
added consonant: as in fallo, pello (compare o7éAAw, root c7éA-), 
verro. 


5. The consonant n is added to the root: as in cerno, lino, 
temno (compare téuvw, root teu-). 


6. The root adds se or ise (originally and often still incep- 
tive): as in disco (= dicsco, root dic), nascor (root gna), 
nanciscor (root nac, compare $aoKw, etpioxw), 


7 The root adds t: as in pecto, plecto, mitto (compare 
KOnTW). 


8 The root-adds i (originally y) in the following: capio, 
ctipio, -ctitio, facio, fodio, fiigio, jacio, -licio, pario, quatio 
(-ctitio), rapio, sapio, -spicio. 


Norte. — Verbal stems in u add merely the vowel e, and are of 
the third conjugation. The u may be radical, as in suo, pluo, fluo; 
or developed from a palatal, as in loquor, stinguo (cf. oti); or 
may belong to the noun in denominatives, as statuo (statu-s), acuo 
(acu-s). Stems in o are lost, as po- (cf. potum); or have become 
of the first conjugation, as boo, boare. 


30: 3.] CONJUGATION. 63 


b. The stem-vowel € is weakened to 1 in several forms of the 
Present indicative and imperative ; is lengthened to € in the Imper- 
fect ; and undergoes other changes exhibited in the paradigm. 


c. The Future is formed (without the suffix bo) by vowel- 
changes to a and e before the personal endings. 

Notre. — The a (properly long) of the future is borrowed from 
the present subjunctive ; the forms in e have the same origin as the 
present subjunctive of the first conjugation, and are properly optative. 


ad, The Perfect stem is formed in five different ways : — 


1. The root is reduplicated: as in cado, cecidi; curro, 
cticurri; disco, didici. 


2- The root-vowel is increased, 4 becoming 6, and I, 6, ti being 
simply lengthened: as in capio, cépi; fdio, fodi; ftigio, figi. 


3. The same form appears in the perfect as in the present stem : 
this is regular with verbs of this conjugation in uo (vo): as, acuo, 
acui; solvo, solvi. 

Nore. — It is probable that in the last two cases the root was 
originally reduplicated ; but that the reduplication was retained only 
where vowel-increase did not take place. 


4. The suffix si is added to the root: as in carpo, carpsi; 
-géro, gessi; stimo, sumpsi; dico, dixi; tégo, texi. 


5. The suffix ui (vi) is added to the root: as in cdlo, colui; 
frémo, fremui; gigno, genui; rapio, rapui. Before this suffix 
a long vowel of various origin is often found: as in ctipio, cupi- 
vi; peto, petivi; sperno, sprévi. 

Note. — Both suffixes are combined in the following: necto, 
nexui; plecto, plexui. A few verbs vary: as, pango, panxi (pegi 
or pepigi); velio, velli or vuisi. 

e. The Present Subjunctive changes € to a: as, vehére, vehas. 

Norr. — This form with a corresponds to the Greek and Sanskrit 
subjunctive with long vowel, and proceeds from the addition of 
another a (short): compare &x¥qs, vahdsi. 


f. The Supine stem is formed by adding to the root t-, which 
in many cases takes euphonically the form s- (§ 1, 3, f. 4). 


Notrr.—A few roots take a connecting vowel before this affix, 
and some have both forms. When this is the case, the future parti- 
ciple and derivative verb take the longer form: as, ortus, oriturus ; 
actus (ago), agito. 

g. Some verbs of the third conjugation form the other parts 
upon the (modified) present stem as a root: as, fingo, finxi, fict- 
(fig); jungo, junxi, junct- (jtig). 

h. In verbs which addito the root in the present stem, this 
vowel is lost where it would be followed by @ or i (except in the 
future third person singular): as in capit, capéret, capiet. 


64 CONJUGATION. [30: 4, 5. 


4, Fourth Conjugation. Verbs of the fourth conju- 
gation retain I throughout (short before another vowel). 


_ @ Several forms of the present stem have in addition the final 
vowels of the third conjugation. In the Imperfect the regular 
form (retained in ibam, from eo) is often found m early Latin. 


b. The Future does not take bo, but has ia and ie (from the 
third conjugation) before the personal endings. In early Latin the 
form in bo (retained in Ibo) sometimes occurs. 


c. The Perfect stem adds vi to the present stem: as, finio, 
finivi. A few verbs add it to the root, as aperio, aperui; 
several add si, as sentio, sensi; and in a few the perfect is the 
same as the present stem, with or without vowel-increase: as, 
repério, repéri; vénio, véni. 


d. The Supine stem adds t- to the present: as, finio, finitus. 
’ A few add it to the root: as, salio, saltus; sepélio, sepultus. 


5. Principal Parts. The principal parts of a verb, 
which determine its conjugation throughout, are the follow- 
ing: 1. Present Indicative (showing the present stem); 2. 
Present Infinitive (the conjugation) ; 3. Perfect (the perfect 
stem); 4. Supine (the swpine stem). 

_ a. The regular forms of conjugation are seen in the follow- 
ing: — 

1. vdco, vocare, vocavi, vocatum, call. 

2. déleo, delére, delévi, delétum, destroy. 

3. carpo, Ccarpére, carpsi, carptum, gather. 

4. audio, audire, audivi, auditum, /ear. 

In the second conjugation, however, the characteristic € rarely 
appears in the perfect and supine: thus the type of this conjuga- 
tion is — 
modneo, monére, monui, monitum, warn. 
b- What is called the Synopsis of a verb consists of the first 


person singular of each tense, with infinitive and participles, given 
in regular order: as, of Amo, I love — 


Present Stem. AcTIvE VOIcr. Perfect Stem. 


INDIC. amo, amabam, amabo. amavi, amaveram, amavero 
SuBJ. amem, amarem. amaverim, amavissem. 


Imp. ama, amato. INF. amare, amavisse, amaturus esse. 
PasstvE Voice. Supine Stem. 
INpDIC. amor, amabar, amabor. amatus sum, — eram, — ero. 
Suns. amer, amarer.. amatus sim, — essem. 
Imp. amare,amator. INr.amari, amatus esse, amatum iri. 
PaRT. amans,amaturus; amatus, amandus. 


30: 6, 7-] -. CONJUGATION. 65 


c- In many verbs the principal parts take the form of two or 
more different conjugations: as, 


1,2. ddmo, domare, domui, domitum, subdue. 

2,3. augeo, augére, auxi, auctum, increase. 

3, 4. péto, petére, petivi, petitum, seek. 

4,3. vincio, vincire, vinxi, vinctum, bind. 
In these the conjugation is said to be denoted by the first or 
present stem. 


d. The compounds of many verbs vary from the forms of the 
primitive. This variation is seen especially (1) in the change of 
the vowel of the root, 4 in open syllables becoming i and in close 
syllables 6, while € becomes I: as, capio, captum, concipio, 
conceptum; téneo, contineo; (2) in the loss of the reduplica- 
tion: as, concido, concidi. (This is, however, retained in com- 
pounds of disco, do, posco, sto, and in some of those of curro), 


6. Special Forms. The following special forms are 


found in the conjugation of many verbs : — 


a. In tenses formed upon the Perfect stem, v between two 
vowels is often suppressed, and the second vowel merged in the first 


(unless a or e follows i or u): as, amasse —amavisse; flestis—= ~ 


flevistis ; audieram — audiveram ; nosse — novisse; noram— , 


noveram. This is especially frequent in verbs of the fourth conju- © — 


gation, and is regular in the compounds of €o: as, abiit for abivit. 


b. In many forms s with its vowel is suppressed in like manner 
when it would be repeated: as, dixti for dixisti. 


c Four verbs — dico, diico, facio, féro — with several of their 
compounds, drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, making 
dic, diic, fac, fér (but effice, confice). The forms dice, duce, 
face (never fere) occur in early Latin. 

d. For the imperative of scio, the future form scito is always 
used in the singular, and scitote usually in the plural. 

e- The following are ancient forms, rarely found except in 
poetry :— 

1. In the fourth conjugation -ibam, -ibo for -iebam, -iam (fut.) ; 

2. In the present subjunctive -im: as in duim, perduim (7e- 
tained also in religious formulas) ; [reconciliassere ; 

3. In the perf. subj. and fut. perf. -so, -sim: as, faxo, faxim, 

4. In the passive infinitive -ier: as, vocarier for vocari. 


7. Parallel Forms. Many verbs have more than one 
set of forms, of which only one is generaily found in classic 
use: as, 


lavo, lavadre or lavére, to wash. 
scateo, scatére or scatére, fo gush. 
ludifico, are or ludificor, ari, to mock. 


66 


FIRST CONJUGATION. 


(31. 


31, First CONJUGATION. 


PRESENT INFINITIVE 


PERFECT SUPINE 


Principal Parts: amo, amare, amavi, amatum. 


ACTIVE VOICE, 
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE,. 


Present, J love or am loving. 


amo, J love. amem 
amas, thou lovest. ames 
amat, he loves. amet 
amamus, we love. amémus 
amatis, you love. amétis 
amant, they love. ament 


Imperfect, I loved (used to love). 


amabam, J loved. amarem 


amabas amares 
amabat amaret 
amabamus amarémus 
amabatis amareétis 
amabant amarent 


Future, J shall love. 
amabo, I shall love. 
amabis 
amabit 
amabimus 
amabitis 
amabunt 


Perfect, I loved (have loved). 


| 


PASSIVE VOICE. 


INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
I am beloved. 
amor amer 
amaris (re) am6ris (re) 
amatur amétur 
amamur amémur 
amamini amemini 
amantur : amentur 
I was loved. 

amabar amarer 
amabaris (re) amar6ris (re) 
amabatur amarétur 
amabamur amarémur 
amabamini amaremini 
amabantur amarentur 

T shall be loved. 
amabor 
amabé€ris (re) 
amabitur 
amabimur 
amabimini 
amabuntur 


I was (have been) loved. 


amavi, / loved. amavérim - amatussum  amatus sim 
amavisti amavéris amatus es amatus sis 
amavit amavérit amatus est amatus sit 
amavimus amaverimus amatisumus  amati simus 
amavistis amaveritis amati estis amati sitis 
amavérunt (6re) amavérint amati sunt amati sint 
Pluperfect, J had loved. I had been loved. 


amavéram, J had amavissem 
amavéras [loved. amavisses 


amavérat amavisset 
amaveramus 

amaveratis 

amavérant amavissent 


Future Perfect, J shall have loved. 


amavéro, I shall have loved. 
amavéris 

amavérit 

amaverimus 

amaveritis 

amavérint 


amavissémus amati eramus 
amavissétis amati eratis 


amatus eram 
amatus eras 
amatus erat 


amatus essem 
amatus esses 
amatus esset 
amati essémus 
amati essé@tis 
amati essent 
TI shall have been loved. 
amatus ero 

amatus eris 

amatus erit 

amati erimus 

amati eritis 

amati erunt 


amati erant 


eet, 21 


ACTIVE. 
Ama, love thou. 
amate, love ye. 


Pr. 


For. 
amatote, ye shall love. 
amanto, they shall love. 


FIRST CONJUGATION. 
IMPERATIVE. 


[ love. 
amato, thou shalt (he shall) 


67 


PASSIVE. 
amare, be thou loved. 
amamiini, be ye loved. 


amator, he shall be loved. 


—— 


amantor, they shall be loved. | 


Noun and Adjective Forms. 


INFINITIVE. 
amari, to be loved. 
amatus esse, to have been loved. 


amatum iri, amatus fore, fo be 
about to be loved, 


amare, fo love. 
amavisse, to have loved. 


amatirus esse, to be 
about to love. 


Pres. 
PERF. 
Fur. 


PARTICIPLES. 





PREs. 
PERF. 
Fort. 


amans, loving. 
amatus, beloved. 


eee 


amaturus, about to love. 





amandus, a, um, to be loved (lovely). 
amandum, -di, -do, loving. 
amatum, amatu, fo love. 


GERUNDIVE. 
GERUND. 
* SUPINES. 


1. There are about 360 simple verbs of this conjugation, 
most of them formed directly upon a noun or adjective-stem, 
to which they generally give the force and meaning of an 
active verb: as, armo, to arm (arma); caeco, fo blind 
(caecus) ; exsulo, to be in exile (exsul). Their conjugation is 
usually regular, like amo; though of many only a few parts 
are found in use. 


2. Those which form their Perfect and Supine stems 
differently are the following,— those marked f having also 
regular forms; and those preceded by a hyphen being found 
only in compounds : — 


crepo, crepui, crepit-, resound. plico,-plicui, -plicit-, fold. 
cubo, cubui, cubit-, le down. poto, potavi, f pot-, drizk. 
do, dare, dedi, dat-, ove. - geco, secui, sect-, cuz. 
domo, domui, domit-, suédue. sono, sonui, sonit-, sound. 
frico, fricui, ¢ frict-, rd. sto, steti, stat-, stand. 

juvo, juvi, jut-, help. tono, tonui, tonit-, ¢hunder. 
mico, micui, glitter. veto, vetui, vetit-, forded. 
neco, f necui, f nect-, £77. 


68 SECOND CONJUGATION. “4 [am 


32. Sreconp CONJUGATION. 
PRESENT INFINITIVE PERFECT SUPINE 


Principal Parts: moneo, monére, monui, montium. 


ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE, 
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Present, [ warn. L am warned. 

modneo, / warn. moneam moneor monear 
mones, you warn. moneas monéris (re) monearis (re) 
monet, ie warns. moneat monetur moneatur 
monémus moneamus monémur ' moneamur 
monétis moneatis monemini moneamini 
monent moneant monentur moneantur 
Imperfect, J warned (was warning). I was warned. 
monébam monérem monébar monérer 
monébas monéres monebaris (re) moneré6ris (re) 
monébat monéret monebatur monerétur 
monebamus monerémus monebamur monerémur 
monebatis monereétis monebaniini moneremini 
monébant monérent monebantur monerentur 
Future, J shall warn. I shall be warned. 
monébo monébor 3 
monébis monebéGris (re) 
moneébit monebitur 
monebimus monebimur 
monebitis monebimini 
monébunt monebuntur 
Perfect, IZ warned (have warned). I was (have been) warned. 
monui monuérim monitus sum monitus sim 
monuisti _ monuéris monitus es monitus sis 
monuit monuérit monitus est monitus sit 
monuimus monuerimus monitisumus moniti simus 
monuistis monueritis moniti estis moniti sitis 
monu6érunt (re) monuerint moniti sunt moniti sint 
Piuperfect, J had warned. . T had been warned. 
monuéram monuissem monitus eram monitus essem 
monueras monuisses monitus eras monitus esses 
monuerat | monuisset monitus erat monitus esset 
monueramus monuissémus moniti eramus monitiessemus 
monueratis monuissétis moniti eratis moniti esgetis 
monuerant monuissent moniti erant moniti essent 
Fut. Perfect, I shall have warned. _I shall have been warned. 
monuéro monitus ero 
monuéris monitus eris 
monu€rit ; -monitus erit 
monuerimus moniti erimus 
monueritis moniti eritis 


monuérint | moniti erunt 





32: 1, 2.] SECOND CONJUGATION. 69 
ACTIVE. IMPERATIVE. PASSIVE. 
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 
Pr. mone, warn. monéte monére monemini 
F. monéto monetote — 
monéto monento monétor monentor 
‘ INFINITIVE. 


Pr. monére Pr. monuisse Pr. monéri Pr. monitus esse 


I. monittrus esse I’. monitum iri (monitus tore) 
PARTICIPLES. 
monens moniturus monitus monendus 


GER. monendum, di, &c. Sup. monitum monitu 


1. There are nearly 120 simple verbs of this conjugation, 
most of them denominative verbs of condition, having a cor- 
responding noun and adjective from the same root, and an 
inceptive form in -sco: as, caleo, calor, calidus, calesco; 


timeo, timor, timIdus. 


2. Most verbs of the second conjugation form their per- 


fect and supine like moneo. 
éetum: deleo, destroy; fleo, 
pounds of -pleo, fill. 


algeo, alsi, de cold. 

ardeo, arsi, ars-, burn. 

audeo, ausus sum, dare. 
augeo, auxi, auct-, 7zcrease. 
caveo, cavi, caut-, care. 
censeo, censui, cens-, value. 
cieo, Civi, cit-, exczze. 

doceo, docui, doct-, Zeach. 
faveo, favi, faut-, favor. 
ferveo, fervi (ferbui), e7ow. 
foveo, fovi, fot-, cherish. 
frigeo, frixi, de cold. 

fulgeo, fulsi, sk7ne. 

gaudeo, gavisus sum, rejoice. 
hereo, hesi, hes-, cling. 
indulgeo, indulsi, indult-, zz- 
jubeo, jussi, juss-, order. |dulge. 
langueo, langui. de faint. 
liqueo, liqui (licui), med. 
luceo, luxi, shine. 

lugeo, luxi, luct-, mourn. 
maneo, mansi, mans-, wait. 
misceo, cui, mixt- (mist-), mzx. 
mordeo, momordi, mors-, d¢ze. 


The following have @vi and 
weep; neo, spin; and com- 


The remainder are — 


moveo, movi, mot-, move. 

mulceo, mulsi, muls-, soothe. 

mulgeo, si (xi), muls- (mulct-), 
milk. 

niveo, nivi (nixi), wzzk. 

paveo, pavi. fear. 

pendeo, pependi, hang. . 

prandeo, prandi, prans-, dive. 

rideo, risi, ris-, Jaugh. 

sedeo, sedi, sess-, szZ. 

soleo, solitus sum, de wont. 

sorbeo, sorbui (sorpsi), suck. 

spondeo, spopondi, spons-, fo 

strideo, stridi, whzz.  [ pledge. 

suadeo, suasi, suas-, urge. 

teneo, tenul, tent-, 4old. 

tergeo, tersi, ters-, wze. 

tondeo, totondi, tons-, shear. 

torqueo, torsi, tort-, Zw/7st. 

torreo, torrui, tost-, voasé. 

turgeo, tursi, swedd. 

urgeo, ursi, urge. 

video, vidi, vis-, see. 


Vvoveo, vovi, vot-, vow. 


70 THIRD CONJUGATION. [33. 
33. TurrpD CONJUGATION. 
4 PRESENT INFINITIVE PERFECT SUPINE 
Principal Parts: rego, regére, rexi, rectum, 
ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. 
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Present, J rule. I am ruled. 
régo, J rule. regam regor regar 
regis, thou rulest. regas regéris (re) regaris (re) 
regit, he rules. regat regitur regatur 
regimus, we rule. regamus regimur | regamur 
regitis, you rule. regatis regimini regamini 
regunt, they rule. regant reguntur regantur 
Imper‘ect, J ruled (was ruling). I was ruled. 
regébam, J ruled. reg6rem regébar regérer 
regébas regéres regebaris (re) reger€ris (re) 
regébat regéret regebatur regerétur 
recebamus regerémus regebamur regerémur 
regebatis regerétis regebamini regeremini 
regébant regérent regebantur regerentur 
Future, J shall rule. IT shall be ruled. 
regam, I shall rule. regar 
reges regéris (re) 
reget regétur 
regémus regemur 
regétis regemini 
regent regentur 
- Perfect, 7 ruled (have ruled). I was (have been) ruled. 
rexi, J ruled. rexérim rectus sum rectus sim 
rexisti | rexéris rectus es rectus sis 
rexit rexérit rectus est rectus sit 
reximus rexerimus'recti sumus recti simus 
rexistis rexeritis recti estis recti sitis 
rexérunt (re) rexérint recti sunt recti sint 
Pluperfect, J had ruled. I had been ruled. 


rexéram, J had  rexissem 
rexéras [ruled. rexisses 
rexérat rexisset 
rexeramus rexissemus 
rexeratis rexissetis 
rexérant rexissent 


Fut. Perfect, J shall have ruled. 


rexéro, I shall have ruled. 
rexéris 

rexérit 

rexerimus 

rexeritis 

rexérint 


rectus eram 
rectus eras 
rectus erat 
recti eramus 
recti eratis 
recti erant 


rectus ero 
rectus eris 
rectus erit 
recti erfmus 
recti eritis 
recti erunt 


rectus essem 
rectus esses 
rectus esset 
recti essemus 
recti essetis 
recti essent 


TI shall have been ruled. 





33.] THIRD CONJUGATION. 71 
ACTIVE. IMPERATIVE. PASSIVE. 
Sing. Plur. Sing. lur. 
Pr..2. rege, rule. regite regére regimini 
F, 2. regito regitote —— 
3. regito regunto regitor reguntor 
INFINITIVE. 
Pr. regére Pr. rexisse Pr. regi Pr. rectus esso 
F. recturus esse ' F. rectum iri (rectus fore) 
PARTICIPLES. 
regens recturus rectus regendus 


Ger. regendum, di, &c. 


Sup. rectum, rectu 


Verbs in io (present stem) are inflected as follows: — 








INDICATIVE. | SUBJUNCTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Present, J take. I am taken. 
capio, J take. capiam capior capiar 
capis, thou takest. capias cap€ris (re) capiaris (re) 
capit, he takes. _capiat capitur capiatur 
capimus, we take. capiamus capimur capiamur 
capitis, you take. capiatis capimini capiamini 
capiunt, they take. capiant capiuntur capiantur 
Imperfect, I took (was taking). I was taken. 
capiébam, I took, capérem capiébar capérer 
capiébas _ capéres capiebaris (re) caperéris (re) 
capiébat capéret capiebatur caperétur 
capiebamus caperémus capiebamur caperémur 
capiebatis caperétis capiebamini caperemini 
capiébant capérent capiebantur caperentur 
Future, J shall take. IT shall be taken. 
capiam capiémus capiar capi€émur 
capies capiétis capiéris (re) capiemini 
capiet capient capiétur capientur 
Perr. cepi ceperim captus sum captus sim 
PLup. ceperam cepissem captus eram captus essem 
F.P. cepero captus ero 
IMPERATIVE. 
cape capite capére capimini 
capito capitote 
capito capiunto capitor capiuntor 
INFIN. capére _—__ cepisse capi captus esse 
Part. capiens capturus captus  capiendus 


72 THIRD CONJUGATION. (SSicz, 2,5, 


I. The following simple verbs of this conjugation form 
the perfect and supine stems like rego, by adding s and t 
to the root. ‘Those marked ¢ take s in the supine :— 


ango, choke; carpo, pluck; cingo, bind; {claudo, shut; 
clépo, sieal; cdmo, comb; cdquo, cook; démo, take away; 
dico, say; diico, guide; {figo, fix; {flecto, bend; frigo, fry; 
tlaedo, hurt; lingo, lick; {ltido, play; ntibo, marry; t pecto, 
comb; tplaudo, applaud; plecto, twine; promo, bring out; 
trado, scrape; régo, rule; répo, creep; {r6do, gnaw; sarpo, 
prune ; scalpo, scrape; scribo, write; serpo, crawl ; stimo, take ; 
tégo, shelter ; tingo, stain; traho, drag; } triido, thrust; { vado, 
go; veho, draw; vivo, live. 

Nore. — In these verbs, h and v are treated as palatals, becom- 
ing x and ct; p takes the place of b, and is inserted euphonically 


after m, before s and t; while d and t are omitted: as in scripsi, 
sumpsi, flexi, plausi; demo, promo, sumo, are old compounds. 


- Verbs in io of the third conjugation are ee as 
sic — 


capio, cepi, capt-, ¢ake. -licio, -lexi, -lect-, ex?rce. 

cupio, cupivi, cupit-,.des’ve. —_ pario, peperi, part- (pariturus), 
-cutio, -cussi, -cuss-, skake. bring forth. 

facio, feci, fact-, make. quatio, —, quass-, shake. 
fodio, fodi, foss-, dg. rapio, rapui, rapt-, sezze. 

fugio, fugi, fugit-, fee. sapio, sapivi, or sapui, de wise. 


jacio, jeci, jact-, throw (-icio). -spicio, -spexi, -spect-, view. 


$’. Those otherwise conjugated are the following (see 


§ 30, 3, a; b). 


ago, egi, act-, drzve. cudo, -cudi, -cus-, forge. [down. 
alo, alui, alt- (alit-), Saas -cumbo [cus], cubui, cubit-, Ze 
arcesso, ivi, arcessit-, semmon. curro, cucurri, curs-, run. 

bibo, bibi, bibit-, drink. depso, depsui, depst-, Avead. 
cado, cecidi, cas-, fall. disco [pic], didici(discit-), earn. 
cdo, cecidi, ces-, cut. divido, divisi, divis-, d/vide. 
cano, cecini, cant-, svg. -do, -didi, -dit- (as in abdo, &c., 
capesso, capessivi, wxdertake. with credo, vendo), Aut [DHA] - 
cedo, cessi, cess-, y7eld. edo, edi, esum, ead (§ 37, 5). 


-cello, -cellui(-culi), -cels-, Azsk. emo, emi, empt-, dzy. 

-cendo, -cendi, -cens-, &ivdle. facesso, facessi, facessit-, execufe. 
cerno, -crevi, -cret-, decree. fallo, fefelli, fals-, decezve. 

colo, colui, cult-, dwell, z7dl. -fendo, -fendi, -fens-, ward of. 
compesco, compescui, restrain. fero, ferre, tuli, lat-, dear (§ 37, 
consulo, lui, consult-, covsult. _findo [| F1p], fidi, fiss-, sAdct. [4)- 
cresco, crevi, cret-, <zcrease. fido, fisus sum, frus?. 


33, 3-] 


fingo [FIG], finxi, fict-, faskion. 
fluo, fluxi, flux-, ow.  [dreak. 
frango [FRAG], fregi, fract-, Zo 
fremo, fremui, fremit-, roar. 
frendo, -fresi, fress-, gvash. 
fundo [FuD], fudi, fus-, Jour. 
furo, furui, rage. 
gemo, gemui, gemit-, groan. 
gero, gessi, gest-, carry. 
gigno [GEN], genui, genit-, dege?. 
ico, ici, ict-, Azz. 
incesso, incessivi, attack. [voke. 
lacesso, lacessivi, lacessit-, Dvo- 
lambo, lambi, lambit-, /aZ. 
lavo, lavi, lot- (laut-), wask 
(reg. of Ist conj.). 
lego, legi(intellexi), lect-, gather. 
lino [x1], levi (livi), lit-, smear. 
linquo [xtc], -liqui, -lict-, Zeave. 
luo, lui, luit-, wash. 
mando, mandi, mans-, chew. 
mergo, mersi, mers-, plunge. 
meto, messui, mess-, reap. 
mitto, misi, miss-, sezd. 
molo, molui, molit-, grczd. 
necto [NEC], nexi (nexui), nex-, 
weave. 
nosco[ GNo], novi, not-(cognit-), 
nuo, nui, nuit-, zod. [ know. 
occulo, occului, occult-, 4zde. 
pando, pandi, pans- (pass-), 
open. — 


pango [PAG], ftpegi (pepigi), 


ft pact-, fasten. 
parco, peperci, parcit-, sAare. 
pasco, pavi, past-, feed. 
pello, pepuli, puls-, drzve. 
pendo, pependi, pens-, wezgh. 
pergo, perrexi, perrect-, go on. 
peto, petivi, petit-, seek. 
pingo [Pic], pinxi, pict-, Aasnt. 
pinso, pinsi, pins-(pinst-, pist-), 
bruise. 
pono [pos], posui, posit-, Azz. 
posco, poposci (posciturus,) de- 
mand. 
prehendo, di, prehens-, sezze. 


THIRD CONJUGATION. 


tendo, 


73 


premo, pressi, press-, ress. 

pungo [PuG}, pupugi, punct-, 
prick. 

quero, quesivi, queesit-, seek. 

quiesco, quievi, quiet-, vesz. 

rudo, rudivi, rudit-, dray. 

rumpo[RUuP], rupi, rupt-, dursé. 

ruo, rui, rut- (ruit-), fed/. 

scabo, scabi, scratch. 

scando, scansi, scans-, climb. 

scindo [ScIp], scidi, sciss-, fear. 

SCISCO, SCivi, sclIt-, decree. 

sero, sevi, sat-, sow. 

sero, serul, sert-, exfwine. 

sido, sidi (sedi), sess-, seZ¢/e. 

sino, sivi, sit-, Dermét. 

sisto [STA], stiti, stat-, sop. 

solvo, solvi, solut-, ay, loose. 

spargo, sparsi, spars-, scatter. 

sperno, sprevi, spret-, scorz. 

sterno, stravi, strat-, strew. 

sterto, stertui, szore. 

strepo, strepui, strepit-, sound. 

-stinguo, -stinxi, -stinct-, guench. 

stringo, strinxi, strict-, dzad. 

struo, struxi, struct-, duz/d. 

suesco, suevi, suet-, de wont. 

surgo, surrexi, surrect-, rzse. 

tango [TAG], tetigi, tact-, ouch. 

tetendi (-tendi), tens- 
(tent-), stretch. 

tergo, tersi, ters-, we. 

tero, trivi, trit-, rub. 

texo, texui, text-, weave. 

tollo [ToL] (sustuli, sublat-), 

tremo, tremui, ¢rvemble. [vrazse. 

tundo [ Tup], tutudi, tuns-, dea. 

uro, ussi, ust-, burn. 

vello, velli (vulsi), vuls-, Aluck. 

verro, verri, vers-, sweep. 

verto, verti, vers-, urn. 

vinco [vic], vici, vict-, conquer. 

viso [VID], visi, vis-, vzszz. 

Vivo, vixi, vict-, dive: 

volvo, volvi, volut-, zurz. 

vomo, vomui, vomit-, vomit. 


Those reduplicated in the perfect are—cado, cedo, cano, curro, 


disco, fallo, pango, parco, pello, pendo, posco, pungo, tendo, tundo. 
The following have only the present stem: clango, claudo 
(limp), fulgo, glisco, glubo, lingo, and inceptives in -sco, which 
take the perfect of their primitives (cf. zosco). In all, there are 
about 200 verbs of this conjugation. 


74 


34, Fourtu 


PRESENT INFINITIVE 


FOURTH CONJUGATION. 


(34, 


CONJUGATION. 


F CRFECT SUPINE 


Principal Parts: audio, audire, audivi, auditum. 


ACTIVE VOICE. 

_ INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Present, J hear. 

audio, J hear. audiam 
audis, thou hearest.audias 
audit, he hears. audiat 
audimus, we hear. audiamus 
auditis, you hear. audiatis 
audiunt, they hear. audiant 


Imperfect, J heard (was hearing). 


audiébam audirem 
audiébas audires 
audiébat audiret 
audiebamus audirémus 
audiebatis audirétis 
audiébant audirent 


Future, J shall hear. 
audiam, J shall hear. 
audies 
audiet _ 
audiémus 
audiétis 
audient 


Perfect, I heard (have heard). 


audivi, / heard. audivérim 
audivisti audivéris 
audivit audivérit 
audivimus audiverimus 
audivistis audiveritis 
audivérunt (re) audivérint 


Pluperfect, J had heard. 


audivéram, J had audivissem 
audivéras [ heard. audivisses 


audivérat audivisset 
audiveramus audivissémus 
audiveratis audivissétis 
audivérant audivissent 


Fut. Perfect, J shall have heard. 
audivéro, I shall have heard. 
audivéris 
audivérit 
audiverimus 
audiveritis 
audivérint 


PASSIVE VOICE. 


INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
I am heard. 
audior audiar 
audiris (re) audiaris (re) 
auditur audiatur 
audimur audiamur 
audimini audiamini 
audiuntur audiantur 
IT was heard. 
audiébar audirer 
audiebaris (re) audiréris (re) 
audiebatur audirétur 
audiebamur audirémur 
audiebamini audiremini 
audiebantur audirentur 
I shall be heard. 
audiar 
audiéris (re) 
audiétur 
audiémur 
audiemini 
audientur 


I was (have been) heard. 
auditus sum auditus sim 
auditus es auditus sis 
auditus est auditus sit 
auditisumus  auditi simus 
auditi estis auditi sitis 
auditi sunt auditi sint 

I had been heard. 
auditus eram auditus essem 
auditus eras auditus esses 
auditus erat auditus esset 
auditieramus  auditi essemus 
auditi eratis auditi essetis 
auditi erant auditi essent 


TI shall have been heard. 
auditus ero 
auditus eris 
auditus erit 
auditi erimus 
auditi eritis 
auditi erunt 


34: 1,2; 35.] FOURTH CONJUGATION. 75 








ACTIVE. IMPERATIVE. PASSIVE. 

Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 
Pr. 2. audi, hear. audite audire audimini 
F. 2. audito auditdte 

3. audito audiunto auditor audiuntor 

INFINITIVE. 

Pr. audire Pr. audivisse Pr. audiri Pr. auditus esse 
F. auditurus esse F. auditum iri (auditus fore) 
PARTICIPLES. 
audiens auditurus auditus audiendus 

Ger. audiendum, di, &c. Sup. auditum, auditu 


1. There are—besides a few deponents and regular 
derivatives in -tirio — about 60 verbs of this conjugation, a 
large proportion of them being descriptive verbs: viz., 
barrio, roar (as an elephant); crocio, croak; ctictirio, crow; 
dentio, teethe; ebullio, bubble; effutio, drivel; frigutio, stutter ; 
fritinnio, twitier; gannio, yelp; glutio, gulp; grunnio, grunt; 
hinnio, neigh; hirrio, snarl ; ligtirio, lick; lipio, scream (as a 
hawk); lippio, blink; mugio, bellow; muttio, mutter; pavio, 
trample; scalptiirio, scratch; scattirio, gush; singultio, hiccup ; 
tinnio, tinkle; tussio, cough; vagio, cry. 


2. Those not conjugated regularly, like audio, are the 
following (see § 30, 4, c) :— 


amicio, amixi (amicui), amict-, reperio, reperi, repert-, fizd. 
clothe. salio, salui, salt-, Zeap. 

aperio, aperul, apert-, ofex. sancio, sanxi, sanct-, sanction. 

comperio, peri, compert-, fd. sarcio, sarsi, sart-, Jatch. 

farcio, farsi (farct-) (-tum), stuf. sentio, sensi, sens-, feel. 

fulcio, fulsi, fult-, Drop. sepelio, sepelivi, sepult-, dury, 

haurio, hausi, haust-, drazz. —sepio, sepsi, sept-, hedge in. 

operio, operui, opert-, cover. venio, veni, vent-, come. 

raucio, rausi, raus-, be hoarse. vincio, vinxi, vinct-, dznd. 

ferio, strike (only present stem). 


35. DePONENT VERBS. 


1. Deponent Verbs have the form of the Passive voice, 
with an active or reflexive signification: as, 

1. miror, mirari, miratus, admire. 

2. véreor, veréri, veritus, fear. 

3. séquor, sequi, seciitus, follow. 

4, pdtior, potiri, potitus, possess. 


76 DEPONENT VERBS. [35: 1. 


The synopsis of these verbs is given as follows: — 


INDICATIVE. 
PRES. miror vereor sequor potior 
IMP. mirabar verébar sequébar potiébar 
Fur. mirabor verébor sequar potiar 
PERF, mirdtus sum veritus sum secitussum potitus sum 
PLUP. “A eram = eram ” eram »  eram 
Fut. P. nF ero es ero ” ero » ero 
SUBJUNCTIVE. 
PREs. mirer verear sequar potiar 
IMP. mirarer _ verérer _ sequérer potirer 
PERE. miratus sim veritussim secitussim  potitus sim 
PLUP. 5 essem  ,, essem ” essem ,, essem 
IMPERAT. mirare, ator verére, étor sequére, itor potire, itor 
INFIN. PR. mirari vereri sequi potiri 
Perr. miratus esse veritus esse sectitus esse potitus esse 
Fur. -turus esse -turus esse -turus esse -turus esse 
PART. PR. mirans verens sequens potiens 
Fur. miraturus veriturus secuturus potiturus 
PERF. miratus veritus secutus potitus 
 GrER. mirandus verendus sequendus potiendus 


. These verbs have the participles of both voices: as, mirans, 
eta miraturus, about to admire; miratus, having ad- 
mired ; mirandus, to-be-admired (admirable). 


b. The participle in dus (gerundive) has necessarily a passive 
meaning, and hence is found only i in transitive verbs, or of neuter 
verbs used impersonally (§ 39, c): as, potienda est tellus, the 
land must be won; pugnandum est nobis, we must fight. 


« Most deponents are neuter or reflexive in their meaning, 
bbreihonoige to what in Greek is called the middle voice. 


d. More than half of all deponents are of the jirst a a 
es and all of these are regular. 


- About twenty verbs of active signification are found in both 
aoe and passive forms: as, mereo or mereor, deserve. 


f. Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive significa- 
tion: as, criminor, J accuse or I am accused. 


_ g- The perfect participle of verbs otherwise deponent is often 
passive: as, mercatus, bought; adeptus, obtained. 


h. The following list contains all the trregular deponents : — 


wo adipiscor, i adeptus, obtain. -miniscor, i, -mentus, ¢hink. 
expergiscor, i, -perrectus, rouse. metior, iri, mensus, measure. 
-experior, iri, expertus, ¢ry. ~ morior, i (iri), mortuus (mori- 


ehkteor eri, fassus, confess. turus, moribundus), de. 
‘. fruor, i, fructus, evJoy. . MNanciscor, i, nactus (nanctus), 
fungor, i, functus, fwZfl. find. 
gradior, i, gressus, sep. » Nascor, i, natus, de dorn. 
irascor, i, iratus, de angry. _ nitor, i, nisus (nixus), s¢r7ve. 
~labor, i, lapsus, fe/2. mh obliviscor, i i, oblitus, forget. 


loquor, i, locutus, sdeak. opperior, iri, oppertus, awazt. 


J 


35: 2; 36.] DERIVATIVE VERBS. 77 


ordior, iri, orsus, deg/n. [r7se. queror, i, questus, complain. 
orior, 3d. (iri), ortus (oriturus), reor, reri, ratus, ¢hkink. 
paciscor, i, pactus, dargain. — sequor, 1, secutus, follow. 


- patior, i, passus, suffer. tueor, eri, tuitus (tutus), defend. 


-plector, i, -plexus, clasp. ~ ulciscor, i, ultus, avenge. 


. proficiscor, i, profectus, se¢-oufutor, i, usus, use, employ. 


2. Semi-Deponents. A few verbs, having no perfect 
stem, form the tenses of completed action like the passive: 
these are called semi-deponents or neuter passives. They are 


the following :— 


audeo, audére, ausus, dare. 

fido, fidére, fisus, trust. 

gaudeo, gaudére, gavisus, rejoice. 
soleo, solére, solitus, be wont. 


a. From audeo there is an old subjunctive ausim. The 
form sddes (for si audes), an thou wilt, is frequent in the 
dramatists. 


b. The active forms vapulare, to be flogged, and venire, to 
be sold (venum ire, go to sale), having a passive meaning, are 
sometimes called neutral passives. ‘To these may be added fiéri 
(fio), to be made, and exsulare, to be banished (live in exile). 


36. DERIVATIVE VERBS. 


Several classes of verbs have derivative meanings corre- 
sponding to their form. (For their formation, see § 44.) 


a. INCEPTIVES or INCHOATIVES end in -sco, and denote the 
beginning of an action: as, calesco, I grow warm (caleo); 
vesperascit, if is gvtting late (vesper). They are of the third 
conjugation, and have only the Present stem, though often com- 
pleted by forms of simple verbs. | 


b. INTENSIVES or ITERATIVES end in -to or -ito, and denote 
a forcible or repeated action: as, jactat, he hurls (jacio); dic- 
titabat, he kept saying (dico). They are of the first conjugation. 


Nore. — Iteratives (or Frequentatives), though distinct in meaning 
from Intensives, are not always distinguished from them in form. 


ec. Another form of Intensives (sometimes called Mernprta- | 
TIVES, or verbs of practice) ends in -sso, denoting a certain 
energy or eagerness of action: as, facessit, he makes haste to 
do. They are of the third conjugation, with perfect and supine of 
the fourth: as, lacesso, lacessivi, lacessitum, to provoke. © 


d. Drrtnvutives end in -illo, and denote a feeble or petty 
action; as, cantillare, to chirp or warble (cano, sing). 


78 IRREGULAR VERBS. [e7: 1. 


e. DESIDERATIVES end in trio, expressing longing or wish, 
and are of the fourth conjugation. Only these three are in com- 
mon use, emptiirio (emo, buy), estirio (€do, eat), parturio 
(pario, bring forth). Others occur for comic effect in the 
dramatists. 


37. IRREGULAR VERBS. 
[For esse and its compounds, see § 29.] 
Several verbs retain older forms in the tenses of the 
present stem, or combine two roots in their inflection. 
These are called Irregular Verbs. 


The most common verbs of this class are — 
1. Vdlo, velle, volui, to wish (the supine stem appears in 
vultus, countenance). 
2. Nolo (non volo), nolle, nolui, to be unwilling. 
3. Malo (mage-volo), malle, malui, to prefer. 
[For the inflection of volo, nolo, malo, see opposite page.] 


4. Féro, ferre, tiili, latum, to bear. 


Norre.— The perfect tuli is for tetuli (which sometimes occurs), 
from TUL in tollo; the Supine latum for tlatum (cf. tAqT6¢). 


ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. 
Pres. féro feram feror ferar 
fers feras ferris feraris (re) 
fert ferat fertur feratur 
ferimus feramus ferimur feramur 
fertis feratis ferimini feramini 
ferunt ferant feruntur ferantur 
Imp. ferébam  ferrem ferébar ferrer 
Fut. feram ferar 
Perr. tii tulerim latus sum i latus sim 
Piup. tuleram  tulissem latus eram latus essem 
F. Perr. tulero latus ero 
IMPERATIVE. 
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 
Pres. fer ferte ferre ferimini 
For. ferto fertote 
ferto ferunto fertor feruntor 
INFINITIVE. 
PRES. PERF. PRES. PERF. 
ferre tulisse ferri latus esse 
PARTICIPLES. 
PRES. Fur. PERF. GER. 
ferens laturus latus ferendus. 














37.] 
VOLO, will. 
“ INDIC. SUBJ. 
volo velim 
vis velis 
vult velit 
vol’umus_ veli’mus 
vultis velitis 
volunt velint 
volebam  vellem 
volebas velles 
volebat vellet 
volebamus vellemus 
volebati® velletis 
volebant vellent 
volam 
voles 
volet 
volemus 
voletis 
volent 
volui — -erim 
voluisti ~eris 
voluit -erit 
voluimus -erimus 
voluistis ~eritis 
voluerunt -erint 
volueram -issem 
volueras  -isses 
voluerat ~isset 
volueramus -issemus 
volueratis -issetis 
voluerant -issent 
voluero 
volueris 
voluerit 
voluerimus 
volueritis 
voluerint 
PR. 
Fur, 
Przs. velle 
Perr. voluisse 
PRESENT, 
GERUND, 


INFLECTION OF Volo AND 1Ts Compounpbs. 




















volens, willing. 
_volendi, volendo 


VOLO, NOLO, MALO. . 


NOLO, will not. 












































INDIC. SUBJ. 
PRESENT. 
nolo — nolim . 
nonvis nol 
nonvult nolit 
nol’’umus  noli’mus 
nonvultis nolitis 
nolunt noiint 
IMPERFECT. 
nolebam nollem . 
nolebas nolies 
nolebat noliet 
nolebamus nollemus 
nolebatis nolietis 
nolebant nollent 
FUTURE. 
nolam t 
noles 
nolet 
nolemus 
noletis 
nolent 
PERFECT. 
nolui _ -erim 
noluisti ~eris 
noluit -erit 
noluimus -erimus 
noluistis -eritis 
noluerunt -erint 
PLUPERFECT. 
nolueram -issem 
nolueras -isses 
noluerat  -isset 
nolueramus -issemus 
nolueratis -issetis 
noluerant -issent 
FUTURE PERFECT. 
noluero 
nolueris 
noluerit 
noluerimus 
nolueritis 
noluerint 
IMPERATIVE. 
noli,~+ noli’te, do not. 


79 























MALO, prefer. _ 
INDIC, SUBJ. 
malo malim 
mavis mais 
mavult malit 
malumus mali’mus 
mavultis malitis 
malunt malint 
malebam mallem 
malebas malities 
malebat mallet 
malebamus mallemug 
malebatis malietis 
malebant malieut 
malam t 
males 
malet 
malemus 
maletis 
malent 
malui -erim 
maluisti. -eris 
maluit ~erit 
maluimus - -erimus 
maluistis -eritis 
maluerunt' -erint 
malueram  -issem 
malueras -isses 
maluerat -isset 
malueramus -issemus 
malueratis -issetis 
maluerant = -issent 
maluero 
malueris 
maluerit 
maluerimus 
malueritis 
maluerint 





noli'to, - nolito’te, thou shalt not, ye shail not. 
noli’to, nolunto, he shall not, they shall not. 


INFINITIVE. 
nolle .- 
noluisse 


PARTICIPLE. 


malle 
maluisse 


nolens, unwilling. 
nolendi 


+ Rare. 


© 


80 IRREGULAR VERBS. (37: 5, 6,7. 


5. Edo, to eat (regular of third conjugation), has also some 
forms directly from the root without a characteristic vowel: viz., 


Inv. Pres. 6s, est, estis; Susy. Pres. edim, Imperf. essem ; 
ImMPrratT. 63, esto, este; INKIN. esse; Passive, estur, essétur; 
and, in compounds, comes, comest, comestum, comésum, 
exest, exesset, exesse. 


6. Eo, ire, ivi, itum, to go (root I, cf. ew; the e stands for ei 
produced by vowel-increase from i). The forms of eo are found 
in veneo, to be sold, and in the passive, chiefly impersonal. 


INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Pres. S. e0, is, it (itur, etc.) eam, eas, eat 
P. imus, itis, eunt eamus, eatis, eant 

Imp. ibam, ibas, ibat irem, ires, ire’ 

ibamus, ibatis, ibant iremus, iretis, irent 
Four. ibo, ibis, ibit 

ibimus, ibitis, ibunt 
Perr. _ ivi (ii) (itum est,etc.) iverim (ierim) 
Piurp.  iveram (ieram) _ ivissem (issem) 


Fur. P. ivero 

ImMPERAT. i, ite; itote, eunto 

Inrin. Pr. ire Per. ivisse (isse) 

Part. P. iens, euntis F.iturus G. eundum (-eundus) 


7% Facio, facére, féci, factum, to make, — regular, with the 
peenva forms fut. perf. faxo, perf. subj. faxim, imperat. fac. It 
as for its passive 


fio, fiéri, factus sum, fo be made, or become, 


of which the tenses of the first stem are regular of the fourth con- 
jugation, but with subj. imperf. fiérem. 


INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Pres. S. fio, fis, fit fiam, fias, fiat 
P. fimus, fitis, fiunt fiamus, fiatis, fiant 
Imp. fiebam fiérem 
Fort. fiam, fies, &c. 
PERF. factus sum , factus sim 
Pup. factus eram factus essem 


Fur. P. factus ero 

ImpPerat. fi, fite; fito, fitote, fiunto 

Inrin. Pres. fiéri P. factus esse 
Parr. Perr. factus faciendus 


33: 1, 2.] DEFECTIVE VERBS. 81 


Most compounds of facio with prepositions change 4 to f or e, 
ind form the passive and imperative regularly: as, 


conficio, conficére, conféci, confectum, to finish. 

Other compounds retain a, and have -fio in the passive: as, 
béné-facio (-fa’cis), -féci, -factum; pass. benefio, fo benefit. 
A few isolated forms of -fio occur with prepositions (see § 38, h). 


38. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 


I. Some verbs have lost their Present stem, and use only 
tenses of the Perfect (sometimes with the meaning of the 
present), in which they are inflected regularly. 

a. Coepi (root co-aP as in apiscor), J began. Infin. coep- 


isse; Fut. Part. coepturus. <A passive participle coeptus is 
used with the passive infinitive. For the Present, incipio is used. 


b. Odi, I hate (root Sd- in odium) ; with the participles Ssus, 
hating or hated (perésus, utterly hateful), osurus, likely to hate. 


c. Memini, J remember (root MEN, as in mens, reminiscor), 
with the imperative memento and mementote; part. meminens, 


Nore. —Odi and memini, having a Perfect form with a present 
meaning, are called preteritive verbs. 

2. Many verbs have only the Present stem, and in many 
the simple verb is incomplete, but the parts appear in the 
compounds. Some occur very commonly, but only in a few 
forms: as, 


a. Aio (root AGH found in adagium and in nego, which has 
passed into the first conjugation) : 

Inv. Pres. Sing. aio, I say. Plur. 
ais EA AS 
ait aiunt 

ImpPEerF. aiébam (aibam), aiebas, &c. 
Susy. Pres. aias, aiat, aiant. 
ImperaT. ai. — Part. aiens. 


b. Inquam, say (used only in quotations, as the English quoth, 
which is from the same root): 





Inv. Pres. Sing. inquam Plur. inquimus 
inquis inquitis (late) 
inquit inqueunt 


ImperF. inquibat.— Fur. inquiet. — Perr. inquisti. 
IMPERAT. inque, inquito. 


82 IMPERSONAL VERBS. [38: 2; 39. 


c. Fari, to speak, forms the periphrastic tenses regularly: as, 
fatus sum, eram, &c. It has also 


Inv. Pres. fatur, fantur.— Fur. fabor, fabitur. 

Imperat. fare. — Invin. fari.— Parr. fanti (with the com- 
pound infans, as noun). 

GERUND. fandus, to be spoken of (with the compounds infan- 
dus, nefandus, abominable). — SuPINe, fatu. 


The compounds affamur, affabimur, preefamini, &., occur. 


d. Quaeso, I ask, beg (an original form of quaero), has 
quaeso, quaesiimus, quaesere, quaesens. 


e. Ovare, to triumph, has the following: 
ovat, ovet, ovaret; ovans, ovandi, ovatus, ovaturus. 


f. A few are found chiefly in the Imperative: as, 
salve, salvete, hail! also salvére (from salvus). 
Ave (or have), avéte, avéto, hail, or farewell. 
cédo, cedite (cette), give, tell. 
apage! begone! (properly a Greek word). 
g- Queo, J can, nequeo, J cannot, are conjugated like eo. 
They are rarely used except in the Present. 
Inp. PrEs. queo, quis, quit, quimus, quitis, queunt. 
Imp. quibam, quibat, quibant.— Fur. quibo, quibunt. 
Perr. quivi, quivit, quiverunt. 
Susy. Pres. queam, &c.— Imp. quirem, quiret, quirent. 
Perr. quiverit. — PLup. quissent. 
INFIN. quire, quivisse (quisse). — Part. quiens, queuntis. 





Inp. Pres. nequeo (often non queo), nonquis, nequit, ne- 
quimus, nequitis, nequeunt. 
Imp. nequibam, -ibat, -ibant.— Fur. nequibunt. 
PERF. nequivi, nequivisti, nequivit, nequiverunt. 
Susy. Pres. nequeam, &c. —Imp. nequirem. 
PERF. nequiverim. — PLuP. nequisset. 
INFIN. nequire, nequivisse.— Part. nequiens. 
_ he The following compounds of fio have only the forms confit, 
at comes to pass; Gefit, it lacks; infit, he begins (to speak). 


39. ImpPERSONAL VERBS. 


Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in the 
third person singular, with the infinitive and gerund. 
These are called Impersonal Verbs. 


Nore.— With impersonal verbs the word 17 is used in English, 
having usually no representative in Latin, though id, hoc, illud, are 
often used nearly in the same way. 


39, 40.] PERIPHRASTIC FORMS. 83 


Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows : — 


a. Verbs expressing the operations of nature: as, pluit, it 
ein ningit, it snows; grandinat, i hails; fulgurat, 2 lighiens. 
In these, no subject is distinctly thought of; though sometimes — 
the name of a deity is expressed ; and, in poetic use, of other 
agents also: as, fundae saxa pluunt, the slings rain stones. 


b. Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject 
becomes the object, as if himself affected by the feeling expressed 
in the verb. Such are, miseret, w grieves; poenitet, it repenis ; 
piget, it disgusis; pudet, wt shames; taedet, it wearies: as, 
miseret me, I pity (i distresses me). 

Such verbs often have also a passive form: as, misereor, 
I pity (am moved by pity); and occasionally other parts: as, 
miseritum est, poeniturus, poenitendus, pudendus. 


c- By a similar construction, the passive of intransitive verbs 
is very often used impersonally: as, pugnatur, there is fighting; 
dicitur, i is said; parcitur mihi, J am spared. 

Nore. — This use of the passive proceeds from its original reflexive )) 
meaning, the action being regarded as accomplishing itself (compare the’ / 
French cela se fait). 


d. Verbs which have a phrase or clause as their subject: as, 
libet, i pleases ; licet, it is permitted; certum est, it is resolved ; 
constat, it is clear; placet, videtur, it seems good; decet, it is 
becoming ; delectat, juvat, it delights; oportet, necesse est, 
it is needful; praestat, it is better; interest, refert, it concerns ; 
vacat, there is leisure; with verbs of happening and the like. 
Libet, licet, have also the forms libitum (licitum) est, etc. 


40, PERIPHRASTIC FORMS. 


When the tenses of esse are used with a Participle, this 
use is called periphrastic conjugation. It is most frequent — 


a. With the participle in urus, to express intention, or simple 
futurity ; this is sometimes necessary in the subjunctive: as, cum 
venturus sit, since he is about to come. This form is sometimes 
called the first periphrastic conjugation; and, when used with sim, 
the future subjunctive. 

b. With the gerundive to denote duty or propriety: as, vera 
dicenda sunt, the truth must be told. ‘This form is sometimes 
called the second periphrastic conjugation. 


c- With the perfect participle, in the regular inflection of the 
tenses of completed action in passives and deponents. 

Norr. — The participle in tus frequently, and that in ns regularly, 
is used with esse simply as an adjective: as, sapiens est, he is wise ; 
acceptus est, he is welcome. 


84 PARTICLES. [41: 1, 


PARTICLES. 


41, ADVERBS. 


What are called ParticLes — that is, all Adverbs, 
Prepositions, and Conjunctions — are real or extinct 
case-forms, or else compounds and phrases. 


In classification Particles cannot always be distinguished ; many 
prepositions and conjunctions being also reckoned among adverbs. 


1. Derivation. The regular adverbs of manner are 
formed from Adjectives. 
[For the comparison of these adverbs, see § 17, 4.] 


~ @ Adjectives of the first and second declensions change the 
characteristic vowel of the stem into 6 (originally an ablative in 
d): as, from carus, dear, caré, dearly. . 


So abunde, szpe, prope, from adjectives not in use; as also 
prod (pro), re= (red=), se=, (sed-). 


b. Adjectives of the third declension add -ter to the stem (most 
being treated as i-stems): as, fortiter, bravely; vigilanter, 
watchfully. - 

Note. — This suffix is of uncertain origin, probably the same as 
in the Greek -repos, and in alter, uter; and, if so, these are neuter 
accusatives. 


c. Some adverbs of the former class have both forms: as, 
dure, duriter; misere, miseriter. (So aliter from alius — 
old stem ali-.) 


d. The neuler accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often 
used as an adverb (strictly a cognate accusative, see § 52, 1, d): 
as, multum, much ; actutum, at once; facile, easily; non (—ne 
unum), not; iterum (comparative of is), again. 


e. The ablative neuter or (less commonly) feminine is used 
adverbially: as, falso, falsely; cito, quickly; recta (via), 
straight (straightway) ; contra, on the other hand; qua (parte), 
where; qui, how; alioqui, otherwise. 


41: 1, 2.] PARTICLES. 85 

f. A few adverbs are datives of adjectives and pronouns : as, 
quo, whither; adeo, so; ultra, beyond; citro, this side; retro, 
back (compar. of uls, cis, re); illoc (illo-ce, weakened to illuc), 
thither. 


g- Some locative forms are used as adverbs: as, ibi, there; 
ubi, where, &c.; peregre, abroad; hic, here; interim, mean- 
while; deinde, then; tamen, yet; and the compounds extrin- 
secus, outside; perendie, day after to-morrow. 


h. Several feminine accusalives are used as adverbs: as, 
statim, on the spot; saltim, with a leap (generally in the form 
saltem, at least); palam, openly; perpéram, wholly otherwise 
(i.e., changed for the worse); tam, quam, nam (which may be 
neuters) ; olim (ollus), of old. 


z. Several plural accusatives, neuter and feminine, are used 
adverbially, as frustra, vainly; alias, otherwise; foras, out of 
doors. 


k. Some adverbs are of uncertain formation: (1) those in -tus 
(usually preceded by i): as, penitus, funditus, from the bottom 
(utterly) ; divinitus, providentially, — which are ablative in mean- 
ing; (2) those in -dem, -dam, -do (in quan-do, when; do-nec, 
until), dum, perhaps jam (from the same root with dies, 
diu, &c.). 

ul. Many phrases or clauses have grown into adverbs: as, 
antea, befure; postmddo, a litile after; Genuo (de ndvo), 
again; prorsus, utterly; quotannis, every year; quamobrem, 
wherefore; obviam, in the way; pridem, before the day (i.e., be- 
Sore this time); forsan, a chance whether ; forsitan (fors sit an), 
perhaps; scilicet (scire licet), to be sure. 


(For Numeral Adverbs, see § 18, 3.) 


2. Classification. Adverbs, other than those directly 
formed from adjectives, are classified as follows: — 


a. Adverbs of Place. 


ubi, where. quo, whither. unde, whence. qua, by what way. 


hic, here. huc, hither. hinc, hence. hac, by this way. 
ibi, zhere. eo, thither. inde, thence. ea, by that way 
istic *,, istuc ,, istinc ,, ista oy 

hic 5; illuc ,, Hane 5 illa (illac) ,, 
alicubi, somewhere ; aliquo alicunde aliqua. 
ibidem, ¢z the same place; eodem indidem eadem. 
alibi, elsewhere ; alio aliunde alia. 
ubiubi, wherever ; quoquo undecunque quaqua. 
ubivis, anywhere ; quovis undique quavis, 
sicubi, 7f anywhere ; siquo sicunde siqua. 
necubi, lest anywhere ; nequo necunde nequa. 


86 ADVERBS. (41: 2, 


nusquam, zowkere ; ultro, beyond (or freely); citro, to this side ; 
intro, zxwardly; porro, further on. 

quorsum (quo versuin), fo what end? horsum, ¢hkis way; pror- 
sum, forward (prorsus, wtterly); introrsum, zzwardly; 
retrorsum, dJackward; sursum, upward; deorsum, dowz- 
ward; seorsum, apart; aliorsum, another way. 


b. Adverbs of Time. 


quando? when? cum (quom, quum), when (relat.). 

nunc, zow ; tunc (tum), ¢ken ; mox, presently; jam, already. 

primum (primo), frst; deinde (postea), wext after; postremum, 
(postremo), fizally. 

umquam (unquam), ever; numquam, sever; semper, always. 

aliquando, some time, at length; quandoque (quandocumque), 
whenever. , 

quotiens (quoties), how often ; totiens, aliquotiens. 

quotidie, every day; in dies, from day to day. 

nondum, wot yet; necdum, nor yet; vixdum, scarce yet; quam 
primum, as soon as possible. 


c. Adverbs of Degree or Cause. 


quam, how, as; tam, so; quamvis, however much. 

cur, quare, why; quod, quia, decause ; eo, therefore. 

ita, sic, so; ut (uti), as, how; utut, utcumque, however. 
quamquam (quanquam), although ; etiam, quoque, even, also. 


d. Interrogative Particles. 


an, -ne, anne, utrum, num, whether. 
nonne, whether not; numquid, ecquid, whether at all; (ecquid 
intellegis ? have you any tdea ? 
utrum (num), -ne, whether ;...an (annon, necne), or. 
wes ” an, -ne ” 


Nore.— The word whether is not now used in English, except in 
Indirect Questions (See § 71). 


e. Negative Particles. 


non, not in simple denial; haud (hau, haut), or minime, not 
in contradiction; ne, not in prohibition. 

ne, lest; neque, nec, nor; ne... quidem, not even. 

non modo...verum (sed) etiam, not only. . . but also. 

non modo ...sed ne... quidem, not only NoT... but nol 
even. 

si minus, if not; quo minus, so as not. 

quin (relat.), but that; (interrog.) why not? who (what) not? 

ne (in compos.), not: as, nescio, J know not; nego (ne-aio), 
I say no (aio, I say yes); némo (ne hémo), no one; ne 
quis, lest any one. 


41: 2, 3.] ADVERBS. 87 


RemarK.— Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative: as, 
nemo non audiet, every one will hear. 

This is especially frequent with compounds of non: as, nonnul- 
lus (= aliquis), some; nonnihil (= aliquid), something; nonnemo 
(= aliquot), sundry persons; nonnumquam (= aliquotiens), some- 
times; necnon, also. 

On the other hand, nemo non, nulli non, every one; nihil non, 
every thing; numquam non, always, &c. : 


3. Signification. The following adverbs require special 
explanation : — 


a. Etiam, also, is stronger than qudéque, and usually pre- 
cedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it: as, 


terret etiam nos, ac minatur (Rosc. Am. 40), us also he terrifies 
and threatens. 
hoc quoque maleficium (id.), #kzs crime too. 


b. Nune, now, means definitely the present time; jam, already, 
—or, with the future, presently ; with negatives, no longer, — has 
reference to the past. Tune, then, is a strengthened form of tum, 
which is correlative with cum, when: as, 


nunc jam confiteris, zow at length you confess. 

non est jam lenitati locus, there zs no longer room for mercy. 

quod jam erat institutum, which had come to be a practice. 

nunc quidem deleta est, tunc florebat (Lzl. 4), zow (tis true) 
she [Greece] zs ruined, then she was in her glory. 

tum cum regnabat, at the time he reigned. 


c. Certd means certainly; certe (usually), at any rate: as, 


certo scio, J know for a certainty. 
aut jam urgentis aut certe adventantis senectutis (C. M. 1.), of 
old age, which is already pressing or at least approaching. 


d. Primum, first (first in order, or for the first time), is 
usually followed by deinde, tum, ... denique; primo, at first, 
by posted (post) or mox, afterwards. (The adjective form is pre- 
ferred in such phrases as nos primi, we first, &c.) Thus, 


primum de genere belli, deinde de magnitudine, tum de impera- 
tore deligendo (Manil. 2), first of the kind of war, next 
of its greatness, then of the choice of commander. 


€. Quidem, indeed, is emphatic, and often has a concessive 
meaning, especially when followed by sed, autem, &c. (see above 
nunc quidem, &c.). With ne... quidem, not even or not 
either, the emphatic word must stand between: as, 


senex ne quod speret quidem habet (C. M. 19), az old man has 
NOT EVEN any thing to hope for. : 

ne Jugurtha quidem quietus erat (Jug. 51), NoR was Fugurtha 
guiet EITHER. ) 


88 PREPOSITIONS. [42: 1, 2 


42. PREPOSITIONS. 


1. Prepositions are not originally distinguished from 
adverbs in form or meaning. ‘They are, however, distin- 
guished in their use, requiring to be followed by some 
special case of a noun or pronoun. 


a. The following Prepositions require the accusative :— 


ad, to. erga, towards. post, after. 
adversus, or extra, outside. praeter, beyond. 
adversum, towards. infra, below. prope, near. 
ante, before. inter, among. propter, on account of. 
apud, at, near. intra, inside. secundum, nezt to. 
circa, or juxta, near. supra, above. 
circum, around. 5b, on accownt of. _—_— trans, across. 
circiter, about. penes, in the power. ultra, on the further 
cis, citra, this side. per, through. side. 
contra, against. pone, behind. versus, towards. 

b. The following require the ablative : — 

a, ab, abs, from, by. 6, ex, out of. 

absque, but for, without. prae, in comparison with. 

cOram, in presence of. pro, in front of, for. 

cum, with. sine, without. 

dé, from. tenus, up to, or as far as. 


c- The following may take either case, but usually with a dif- 
ference in meaning : — 


in, into, in; sub, under; subter, beneath; super, above. 


In and sub, when followed by the Accusative, signify motion to, 
when by the Ablative, rest in, a place. 


(For the Syntax of Prepositions, see § 56.) 


2. The meaning and use of these prepositions may be 
seen in the following examples, which include many adverbial 
phrases : — 


A, ab, away from (opposite of ad): ab eo loco, from that 
place ; a nobis, from our house; prope ab urbe, wear (not far 
from) ¢he city; secundus a rege, next the king; liberare ab, Zo 
set free from; occisus ab hoste (periit ab hoste), slain by an 
enemy ; a fronte, zz front; ab hac parte, on this stde; a primo, 
at first; ab re, afterwards; dolet ab animo, he grieves at heart; 
ab initio ordiri, Zo begin at the beginning; stat ab amicis, ke 
stands by his friends ; ab hac contione, after this speech; ab re 


42: 2.] PREPOSITIONS. 89 


ejus, 20 his advantage ; servus a manu, az amanuensis; a pedi- 
bus, a footman. 


Notre.—ab signifies direction from the object, but towards the 
speaker ; compare de and ex. 


Absque, without:—absque argumento, w7thout argument; 
absque paucis, except a few; absque me, but for me. 


Ad, to, towards, at (place or time) :—eo ad patrem, J go to 
my father ; ad pedes ejus, af his feet ; ad flumen, xear the river ; 
ad ripas, ow the banks; ad meridiem, towards the south; ad 
vesperum, wear evening ; ad tempus, at the (fit) time; adiit ad 
rempublicam, ke went into public life; ad manus, fo blows; ad 
petendam pacem, /o seek Jeace; ad communem salutem, for the 
common safety; nihil ad Cesarem, nothing in comparison with 
Cesar; ad hunc modum, 7x this way ; quem ad modum, how, as; 
ad nuptias, for the wedding ; ad auxilium, for aid; ad hos ca- 
sus, for these emergencies; ad centum, near a hundred; ad pri- 
mum nuntium, at the first message ; ad hoc, besides ; ad speciem, 
in respect to form; ad praesens, for the moment; ad verbum, 
word for word; ad summum, 72 short, at most; ad ultimum, 
wholly, finally; ad unum, fo a man. 


Adversus («sum), oposite, towards, against : — adversus mon- 
tem, over against the mountain; te adversum, fo your face; ad- 
versus eum, 7” comparison with him; adversus ea, in reply to 
this; adversus deos, towards the gods. 


Ante, iu front, before (place or time) :—ante oculos, before 
his eyes; ante urbem captam, before the city was taken; ante 
diem quintum (A.D.v.). Kal , the fifth day before the Calends (third 
day before the end of the month) ; ante quadriennium, four years 
before or ago; ante alios carissimus, dearest of all; ante tem- 
pus, Zoo soon; ante omnia, first of all; ante Ciceronem, before 
Cicero's time. 


Apud, az or dy (rarely of places) : —apud forum, 7x the forum; 
apud populum, édefore the people; apud exercitum, with the 
army; apud aliquem, az one’s house; apud se, at home, or in 
his senses; apud Ciceronem, zz Cicero (in his works); apud 
antiquos, amoug the ancients. 


Circum (acc.), cirea (abl.), circiter (stem as in cireus, czrcle), 
about, around:—circum axem vertitur, z¢ turns about the 
axle; circum haec loca, hereabout; circa se habent, they have 
with them; (of time or number, circa or circiter, not cir- 
cum) :— circa eandem horam, about the same hour ; circiter pas- 
sus mille, about a mile; circa bonas artes (late), zm reference to 
good arts; loca haec circiter, khereabout. 


Cis, citra (abl. of comparative, compare Greek ~-repos), his 
side of (both motion towards and rest in; opposite to ultra) : — 
cis Padum, ¢his side the Po; citra flumen, ¢his side the river; 
citra rustici operam, within the labor of a Jarmer ; citra usum, 
without regard to use; citra satietatem, not to fulness ; paucos 
cis dies, within a few days. 


90 PREPOSITIONS. [42: 2. 


Contra (abl. comp. of cum), offoszte, against: — contra Itali- 
am, over against Italy ; contra hostem, against the enemy; contra 
munera, as a set-of to the gifts; haec contra, this in reply; 
contra autem, duz on the other hand, adv.; quod contra, whereas 
on the other hand, adv.; non pro me sed contra me, wot for but 
against me ; contra fas, contrary to right. 


Coram, zz presence of (only of persons) :—coram judicibus, 
before the judges ; Germanico coram (Tac.), usually an adverb. 


Cum, wth (together in place or time) :—cum fratre, with his 
brother ; abi cum donis, away with your gifts ; cum malo suo, 
to his own hurt ; cum labore, with toil; cum dis volentibus, wztk 
favor of the gods; cum decimo, tenfold; confligere cum hoste, 
to fight with the enemy; cum armis, 7z arms; cum imperio, zz 
power; cum pallio, 2 a cloak; esse cum telo, to go armed; cum 
silentio, zz szlence. 


De, on away, down from: — de domo, out of the house ; de 
sella, down from his seat; unus de plebe, one of the people (the 
whole, from which a part is taken); emi domum de Crasso, £ 
bought a house of Crassus (also ab); de tuo (de te), out of your 
property; qua de re, concerning which thing ; qua de causa, for 
which reason; de summo genere, of high birth; de improviso, 
of a sudden; de industria, on EMees ; de integro, anew; de 
nocte, at night; de tertia vigilia, just at midnight (starting at 
the third watch); de mense Dec. navigare, Zo sazl in December ; 
de amicorum sententia, zz accordance with the views of friends ; 
triumphare de, Zo ¢riumph over ; de schola, of that sect. 


Erga, zowards (usually of persons):—erga aedes, opposite 
the house; benevolentia erga nos, kindness towards us; malus 
erga me, spzteful towards me (but more generally used of a favor- 
able inclination). 


Ex, e, from (the midst, opposed to in), out of: —ex urbe, 
Srom the city; ex hoc die, from this day forth; statua ex aere, 
a statue of brass; ex fuga, during flight; ex consulatu. right 
after his consulshif; ex aere alieno, by reason of debt; ex 
ejus sententia, after his opinion; ex aequo, justly; ex impro- 
viso, unexpectedly; ex tua re, to your advantage ; ex voluntate 
ejus, dy his good will; magnaex parte, 72 a great degree; ex 
pede Herculem, ¢o know one by a slight token; felix ex misero, 
bettering one’s condition; ex Metello consule, beginning with 
Metellus’s consulship ; ex pedibus laborare, to be lame in the feet ; 
ex equo pugnare, Zo fight on horseback ; ex usu, expedient. 


Extra, outside of (opposed to intra):—extra provinciam, 
beyond the province; extra causam, beside the case; extra te 
unum, except you alone (not used of time). 


In, zxto (acc. opp. to ex), zz (abl. of time or place) :—in 
urbem ire, Zo 20 to town ; in mentem venit, z# comes to mind ; amor 
in (erga or adversus) patrem, love for his father; in aram con- 
fugit, he fled to the altar (on the steps or merely Zo); in diem, 
to the set day; in dies, from day to day; vi. pedes in longitudi- 
nem, six feet long; *. vi. partes fractus, broken in six parts; 


42: 2.] PREPOSITIONS. 91 


in hee verba jurare, to swear to these words; in alicujus verba 
jurare, to take an oath of allegiance to one; in silvam deponere, 
zo (carry and) Alace in the wood; hunc in modum, 7m this way ; 
oratio in Catilinam, @ speech against Catiline; in universum 
(in planum), om the whole; in totum, wholly; in reliquum, for 
the rest; in perpetuum, for ever; in majus, too much; in pejus, 
Jor the worse; in quantum, so far as; in magnam partem, zz 
great part; in utramque partem, on etther side; nos in diem 
vivimus (Tusc. v. 11), we live from hand to mouth ;—in urbe esse, 
to be in the city ; in tempore, 7% season ; in scribendo, while writ- 
ing ; est mihi in animo, J have it in mind; in collo, on the neck ; 
in arbore, up the tree; in ancoris (Czs.), at anchor; in altera 
parte, on the other side; in sapientibus, among the wise; in hoc 
homine, ¢# the case of this man; in bonis artibus (Sall.), zz good 
behavior. 


Infra, delow : — infra caelum, under the sky; infra nos, beneath 
us; infra Homerum, later than Homer ; infra iii. pedes, less than 
three feet. 


Inter, detween, also among :— inter flumen et montem, 
between the river and hill (so of time); inter noctem, zz the 
course of the night; inter bibendum, while drinking; interest 
inter, there is a difference between; inter se amant, they love each 
other ; inter se loquuntur, they talk together ; inter nos, between 
ourselves ; inter ceteram planitiem, zz a district elsewhere level. 


Intra, w7zthin (surrounded on all sides):— intra parietes, zz- 
side the house; (of time), intra v. dies, within five days; intra 
legem, zuside the law. 


Juxta, hard dy (superl. from jungo):—juxta murum, close 
to the wall; juxta se, alike with himself; juxta deos, next the 
gods; juxta vicinitatem (Liv.), dy reason of nearness; juxta 
quam, zearly as; juxta ac si, about as if. 


Ob, towards (in place) :—ob Romam (early), towards Rome ; 
ob oculos, before the eyes; ob eam causam, for that reason; ob 
rem, fo the purpose ; ob hoc, therefore ; quam ob rem, wherefore. 


Penes, with, in possession of (same root as penitus) : — est 
penes me, he ts with me (at my house); non est penes me, 7? is 
not in my power. 


Per, through (in any direction) :— per urbem ire, fo go through 
the city; licet per me, you may for all me ; juro per leges, J swear 
by the laws; per literas, by letter; per jocum, 7 jest; per lon- 
gum tempus, for a long time ; per somnum, during sleep. 


Pone, dehind (only in space) :—pone tergum, behind the back. 


Post, after (space or time) :— post iii. dies, after three days; 
post tergum, behind the back; post me, after me (in time). 


Prae, <2 front: —prae se ferre, to carry before him (exhibit or 
make known): prae gaudio conticuit, ke was silent for joy (used 
only of an objection or hindrance); prae fratre egens est, he ¢s 
poor compared to his brother. 


92 PREPOSITIONS. [42: 2. 


Praeter, dy, on the outside: —praeter spem, beyond hope; 
praeter hoc, besides this; praeter oculos, before the eyes ; nil prae- 
ter saxa, nothing but stones. 


Pro, ‘x front (facing the same way) :— pro populo, zx pres- 
ence of the people; pro lege, zn defence of the law; argentum 
pro vino, money for wine ; pro hac vice, for this once; pro con- 
sule, zz place of consul ; pro viribus, considering his strength. 


Prope, zear : — prope (propius, proxime) urbem, or ab urbe, 
near the city; prope lucem, towards daybreak. 


Propter, zear:— propter te sedet, he sits next you; propter 
quos vivit (Mil. 22), through whose means he lives ; propter me- 
tum, ¢hrough fear; propter frigora (Ces.), dy reason of cold. 


Secundum, just behind, following along (part. of sequor) :— 
ite secundum me (Plaut.), go behind me; secundum litus, zear 
the shore; secundum flumen, along the stream ; secundum ludos, 
after the games ; secundum naturam, according to nature ; secun- 
dum causam nostram, ¢o the advantage of our cause. 


Sine, apart from: —urbs sine regibus, @ city without kings; 
non sine lacrimis, wth tears; sine sanguine, bloodless. 


Sub, wxder: — sub jugum mittere, Zo send under the yoke ; sub 
montem succedere, Zo come close to the hill ; sub noctem, towards 
night; sub lucem, zear daylight; sub hec dicta, at these words; 
—sub terra, underground ; sub Jove, in the open air; sub monte, 
at the foot of a hill; sub castris, near the camp; sub terra exi- 
mere (Plaut.), to take from under ground ; sub profectione (Ces.), 
during the march; sub eodem tempore, about that time; sub 
oculis domini, wader the master’s eye; sub regno, under royal 
power; sub lege, liable to the law. 


Subter (rarely with abl.), dexeath : —subter fastigia tecti, under 
the house-roof; subter precordia, close to the heart; subter mu- 
rum, deneath the wall; subter se, below itself; subter testudine, 
under the shed (of shields). . 


Super, above, over: — super tumulum, oz the hillock; super 
ipsum, above him (at table); super Indos, deyond the Hindoos ; 
super cenain loqui, ¢o talk during supper; super morbum fames 
etiam, destdes sickness famine also; super omnes, above all; 
— super cervice (Hor.), over his head ; super arbore sidunt, hey 
perch on a tree; nocte super media (Vir.), about midnight ; super 
tali re, about such an affair; satis superque, more than enough. 


Supra, on the top:—supra terram, above ground; supra 
caput (Sall.), zmminent; supra Alexandriam, beyond Alexan- 
dria; supra hanc memoriam, before our remembrance; supra 
mille, above a thousand; supra morem, more than usual; supra 
quod, Jdestdes. 

Tenus, as far as: —capulo tenus, uf Zo the hilt; verbo (nom- 
ine) tenus, 7” zame, xominally ; aurium tenus, as far as the ears 
(only); labrorum tenus, along the lips. 


Trans, beyond : — trans mare, over seq ; trans flumen, deyond 
the river (rest or motion). 


42: 3. 43: 1, 2.] CONJUNCTIONS. 93 


Ultra, on the further side: — ultra eum, beyond him; portas 
ultra, deyoud the gates; ultra pueritiam, dater than childhood ; 
ultra eum numerum, more than that number ; ultra fidem, zucred- 
zble; ultra modum, zmmoderate. 

Versus, /urned to (Eng. -ward):—TItaliam versus, towards 
Ztaly (usually with another prep.); modo ad urbem modo in 


Galliam versus (Sall.), zow towards the city, now towards 
Gaul. 


3. Prepositions are frequently compounded with verbs, 
retuining their original meaning as Adverbs: as, 

a, ab, away (aufero, dear of); ad, towards (affero, bring); 
ante, defore; circum, around (urbem circumire = ire’ circum 
urbem); con (cum), together; de, down; di or dis (insep.), 
apart; ex, out, completely ; im, in, on, against; inter, between, 
into, to pieces; ob, towards, in the way of; per, through, thor- 
oughly ; ve, red (insep.), back, again ; se, sed (insep.), apart ; 
sub, under, near; super, over, in place of. (For the assimila- 
tion of the final consonant, see page 4.) 


43. CoNJUNCTIONS. 


1. Classification. Conjunctions are more numerous, 
and their use is much more accurately distinguished, in Latin 
than in English. They are divided into two classes, viz. : — 


a. Co-ordinate:— these include Copulative (anp), Disjunc- 
tive (or), Adversative (BuT), Causal (ror), Lllative (THERE- 
FORE). | 


b. Subordinate:— these are Conditional (1), — including 
Comparative (As 1F), Concessive (THOUGH, EVEN IF), —Tem- 
poral (WHEN), Causal (BECAUSE, SINCE), Consecutive (so 


THAT), Final (IN ORDER THAT). 


othe following list includes most of the conjunctions 


and conjunctive phrases in common use. 


Note. — Some of these have been included in the classification of 
Adverbs, and a list of Interjections has been added. See also list 
of Correlatives, page 49. 


a. Copulative and Disjunctive. 
et, -que, atque (ac), and. 
etiam, quoque, neque non (necnon), quinetiam, itidem (item), 
also. 
cum...tum; tum...tum, doth...and; not only... but also. 
qua... qua, oz one hand, on the other hand. 
modo... modo, mow... now. 
aut... aut; vel... vel (-ve), ezther...0”m 
Sive (seu) .,, sive, whether... or. 


94 CONJUNCTIONS. [43: 2. 


et...et; et...-que (atque); -que...et; -que...-que (poet.), 
both ...and. 

nec (neque)... nec (neque); neque... nec; nec... neque (rare), 
neither... nor. 

et... neque, doth... and not. 

nec (neque) ... -que, wetther... and. 


b. Adversative. 


sed, autem, verum, vero, at, atqui, Juz. 

tamen, attamen, sed tamen, verumtamen, but yet, nevertheless. 
nihilominus, zone the less. 

at vero, enimvero, but (for) in truth. 

ceterum, on the other hand, but. 


Ce Causal. 


nam, namque, enim, etenim, for. 

quia, quod, decause. 

quoniam, quippe, cum (quom), quando, quandoquidem, siquidem, 
utpote, séxce, inasmuch as. 


d. Illative. 
ergo, igitur, itaque, ideo, idcirco, proinde, therefore. 
propterea (... quod), for this reason (. .. that). 
quapropter, quare, quamobrem, quocirca, unde, wherefore, 
whence. 
e. Comparative. 


ut, uti, sicut, velut, prout, praeut, ceu, as, like as. 
tamquam (tanquam), quasi, utsi, acsi, as zf. 
quam, atque (ac), as, than. 


f. Conditional. 
si, 7f; sin, but zf; nisi (ni), wuless, if not; quod si, but éf. 
modo, dum, dummodo, si modo, ¢f only, provided. 
dummodo ne (dum ne, modo ne), Arovided only not. 


g. Concessive. 


etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, tamenetsi, quamquam, although. 
quamvis, quantumvis, quamlibet, however much. 
licet, ut, cum (quom), ¢hough. 

Nortr. — A concessive is often followed by an adversative : as, tamen- 
etsi ...tamen nihilominus, though . . . yet none the less. 


h. Temporal. 


cum (quom), cum primum, ubi, ut, ut primum, postquam, when. 

prius ... quam, ante... quam, defore (non ante... quam, zot 
sis. 5 S6MZEE ). 

quando, simulatque (simul ac), simul, as soon as. 

dum, usque dum, donec, quoad, un/ii. 


a Final. 


ut (uti), quo, z” order that. 
ne, ut ne, Jest (7x order that not); neve (neu), nor. 
quin (after negatives), quominus, du¢ ¢hat (so as to prevent). 


43: 2, 3.] CONJUNCTIONS. 95 


k. Interjections. 


O, en, ecce, ehem, papae, vah (of astonishment). 
io, evae, evoe (of Joy). 

heu, eheu, vae, alas! (of sorrow). 

heus, eho, ehodum, ho! (of calling). 

eia, euge (of prazse). 

proh (of attestation): as, proh pudor, shame! 


3. Special Meaning. The following list includes most 
of the conjunctions whose meaning or use requires special 
notice : — 


a. Et, and, connects independent words or clauses; -que 
(enclitic) combines closely into one connected whole; atque 
(sometimes ac before consonants) adds with emphasis. In the 
second member, and nol is expressed by neque or nec. 


Atque (ac), as, is also used after words of comparison and 
likeness, as idem, the same, simul, as soun, aliter, otherwise. 


6. Sed and vérum or vero (more forcible), but, are used to 
contradict what precedes, — always after negatives; at, yel, intro- 
troduces with emphasis a new point, especially in argument (at 
enim almost always) alluding to a supposed statement on the 
other side; autem is used in the same way, especially in tran- 
sitions, but with less force. 


c. Aut, or, excludes the alternative; vel (-ve) gives a choice ; 
sive (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions, but is also 
used with single words, — especially two names for the same thing. 
(But of aut and vel the use is not always clearly distinguished.) 


d. Nam (namque), for, introduces a sufficient reason; nim, 
an explanatory circumstance; etenim (for, you see; for, you 
know), something self-evident, or needing no proof (neg. nec enim). 


é. Ergo, therefore, is used of things proved logically; itaque, 
in proofs from the nature of things; igitur, then (a weak ergo), 
in passing from one stage of the argument to another, often merely 
to resume; idcirco, fur this reason, to call attention to a special 
point. 


f- Quia, because, regularly introduces a fact; quod, either a 
fact or a statement or allegation; quoniam, since, has reference 
to motives. 


g- Quom (cum), when, is always a relative conjunction, often 
a correlative with tum; quando is also used as interrogative or 
indefinite (quando? when? si quando, if ever). 


he Et...et, means simply both...and; cum (less fre- 
quently tum) .. . tum has also the meaning not only... but also, 
emphasizing the second member. 


96 DERIVATION OF worps. ([43: 3. 44: I. 


i. Autem, enim, vero, always follow one or two words in 
their clause; the same is generally true of igitur, and often of 
tamen. 


k. Conjunctions are often doubled, for the sake of emphasis, or 
to bind a sentence more closely to the preceding : as, at vero, 
itaque ergo (namque, etenim). The same is true of Relatives, 
which are equivalent to a conjunction and demonstrative combined ; 
as, qui ubi sit nescio, for where he is I know not. 


44, DeERIVATION OF Worpbs. 


The Root is a primitive element of speech. All 
roots are monosyllabic, and have a short vowel. 
Stems are formed from roots, and are divided into 
two main groups; viz., noun-stems (including adjec- 
tives) and verb-stems. 


i. Noun Forms. Derivative Nominal forms include 
(1) nouns of agency, (2) names of actions, (3) active and 
passive adjectives. 


Note. — Examples of roots are Es, be; 1,g0; STA, stand; cap, take; 
puc, lead; rac, make; FER, bear; RAP, seize; SED, sit; TEN, stretch 
(see also pp. 72, 78); Da (AO), give; Dita (OE), put. 


a. Roots and Stems. Roots may be used as stems (1) without 
change, as in diic-is, néc-is; (2) with vowel-increase, as in liic-is, 
pac-is; (3) with reduplication, as in furfur, marmor; (4) com- 
pounded, as in judic-is (jus, dico), conjug-is (con-jugo). But 
Stems are more commonly formed by means of suffixes added to 
the root (primary), or to a stem (secondary), either with or without 
the above changes. 


b. Primary Suffixes. The simplest suffixes are the vowels a 
(in Latin 0, a), i, u. Other primary suffixes are ta, ti, tu; na, ni, 
nu; va, ra, ya, ka, an. 


Notre. — The vowel-suffixes a, i, u, are sometimes regarded as if 
merely added to the root to fit it for inflection; but they are, in fact, 
true pronominal roots, and must be regarded as formative suffixes. 
The first is found in nouns and adjectives of a= and o=stems, as 
ludus, vagus, scriba, toga (root TEG) ; —i is less common, and in Latin 
has frequently disappeared, especially in the nominative, as in scobs 
(scobis, root SCAB) ;—u is disguised in most adjectives by an addi- 
tional i, as in suavis (for suadvis, cf. 7dv¢), tenuis (root TEN in tendo), 
and remains alone only in nouns of the fourth declension, as acus 
(root aK, sharp, in acer, acies, @kv¢), pecu (root PAK, bind, in paciscor). 


44: 1.] DERIVATION OF WORDS. 97 


The signification of the other primary suffixes is as follows:—ta 
(in the form to-) makes the regular perfect participle, as tectus, tectum ; 
sometimes active, as in potus, pransus ; and is found in a few not recog- 
nized as participles, as putus, altus (alo);—ti forms abstracts, rarely 
nouns of agency, as messis, vestis, pars, mens ; — tu forms abstracts (in- 
cluding supines), sometimes becoming concretes, as actus, luctus ;— 
na, forming perfect participles in other languages, in Latin makes 
adjectives of like meaning, which often become nouns, as magnus 
(= mactus, root MAG), plenus, regnum ; — ni, nouns of agency and adjec- 
tives, as ignis, segnis ; —— nu, rare, as in manus, sinus ;— ma, Various, as 
in animus, almus, firmus, forma ;—va (commonly wo), of active or 
passive meaning, as in equus, arvum, conspicuus, exiguus, vacivos (vacuus) ; 
—ra (or la, a passive participle termination in other languages), 
usuaily passive, as in ager, integer, pleri-que (= plenus = -plétus), sella 
(for sed-/a, ef. dpa) ; — ya (gerundives in other languages), adjectives 
and abstracts, including many of the first and fifth declensions, as 
eximius, audacia, Florentia, pernicies;— ka, sometimes primary, as in’ 
pauci (cf. madpoc), locus (for stlocus, et. Sk. sthara, sthala, Ger. Stelle, 
Eng. stall) ; — an (in, on), in nouns of agency and abstracts: as aspergo, 
meee (nis), gero (dnis). 

‘he above, with some compound suffixes given below, belong to the 
original language, and most of them were not felt as living formations 
in the literary period. But developed forms of these, with a few other 
primary suffixes, were used consciously,— generally as secondary 
suffixes. ‘The old primary suffixes thus used are (along with ta and 
tu, given above) man, ant, vant, tar, tro, as. (Observe that it is 
the stem, not the nominative, that is formed by the suffix, although the 
nominative is given for convenience of reference.) 


c. Significant Endings. The principal classes of regular 
derivate nouns and adjectives, as indicated by their nominative- 
ending, are the following :— 


1. Nouns of Agency (active adjectives or appellatives), end- 

ing in— 

tor (lengthened from tar, M.), trix (tric- — tar -} ic, F.), added 
to the same form of stem that precedes t of the supine (which 
for convenience may be called the supine-base), or to noun- 
stems by analogy: as ductor, victrix, viator. Earlier forma- 
tions with tar are patér, matér. 

es (-itis), descriptive nouns, as miles, comes. 


2. Names of Actions (passing into abstracts, instruments, 
results) : — 
or (M.), es, is (F.), us, ur, (N.): as timor, sedes, decus, robur. 
io (added to pres. stem), tio, tura, tus (to supine base), verbal 
abstracts: as legio, actio, pictura, cultus (those in tus more 
concrete). 
ium (ya) forms neuter abstracts (from verb-stems), as gaudium ; 
or from nouns meaning offices or groups: as hospilium, 
servitium, collegium. 


a 


3 


98 DERIVATION OF WORDS. [44: 1. 


men (man), mentum (man-+ta), monia, monium (man+ 
ya), denoting act, means, or result: as flumen, querimonia. 

is, tia, tas, tus, tudo, do, go, (F.) abstracts, rarely concrete: as 
audacia, militia, duritia (ies), bonitas, servitus, altitudo, lanugo. 

brum, crum, trum, biilum, ctilum, bra: denoting means, usually 
from verb-stems: as claustrum, vehiculum, turibulum. 


3. Adjective Forms, passing often into Nouns. 
a. Nominal 


tilus (following a vowel, dlus; following s, n, r, ctilus), ellus, 
illus, DimINUTIVE nouns or adjectives, with endings for 
gender: as puerculus, puella ( puerula), puellula, asellus (asin- 
ulus), misellus (miserulus). Rare forms, eculeus, homuncio. 

ades (i. as), ides, ides (¥r. is, 6is), Gus, Parronymics, denot- 
ing parentage, &c., as Aineddes, Priamides, Priaméis. 

anus, 6nus, inus; as (-atis), ensis; ius Gius, icius idcus, 
acius, denoting belonging to or coming from (often GENTILE). 

aris, alis, Elis, ilis, lis (all from ra), with inus, and nus, denoting 
various ideas of relation or possession: -ile (N. of ilis) 
denotes place, as ovile; -ale, -are (Nx. of lis, aris) usually 
losing e, become nouns ; -ina, F., from names of animals, often 
means their flesh; nus and tinus, form adjectives of time, 
as vernus. 

ter (tris), timus, as campester, marilimus ; ternus, from adverbs 
of time: as sempiternus, hesternus (from heri, old hesi). 

atus, Itus, titus, denote provided with: as galeadtus, auritus, ver- 
sutus. 

eus, Inus, aceus, icius, (esp. from participles), also {cius, denote 
material or relation, as aureus, novicius, cretaceus. 

arius, SGrius (adj.), denote belonging to ; Arium, Grium (N.), place; 
arius (M.) often of trades. —So too icus, as bellicus, nauticus. 

étum denotes place, as quercetum. 

Osus (from vant), Slens, Slentus (root 51) denote full of, or 
prone to, as fluctuosus, vinolenitus ; bundus, cundus, parti- 
cipial, but denoting continuance of quality: as tracundus. 


b. Verbal. 

ax, idus, tilus, vus (uus, ivus), denoting tendency (-ax often faulty 
or aggressive, Ivus rather passive): as pugnaz, cupidus, 
bibulus, protervus, nocuus, captivus. 

flis, bilis, ius, generally passive: as fragilis, nobilis, eximius. 

minus, mnus, mna, (Gr. zevoc), participles, but no longer signi- 
ficant as such: as terminus, alumnus, autumnus, lamina, 
erumna, femina. 

ndus, the gerund-ending, forming a few active (middle) adjectives : 
as secundus, rotundus (cf. volvendis mensibus). 


44: 2.] DERIVATION OF WORDS. 99 


2. Derivation of Verbs. Verbs of the third conju- » 
gation, with irregular verbs and vowel-stems d&, std, are 
primitive. Most others are either causative or denominative 


(formed from nouns). 

Notrre.— The consciousness of roots was lost in Latin, so that in 
forming the parts of verbs only stems are dealt with. Thus moneo, 
monui (not menui), from root men, as in mens; ccedo, cecidi (not cecidi), 
from root (cdd, as in cédo). For modifications of the root in verb-stems, 
see §§ 28,30. The derivative suffix in the regular conjugations is 
original ya added either to the root, the present stem in a, or the 
noun-stem. y 


a. The following are the regular conjugational forms : — 


1. Verbs of the first conjugation (generally active) may be 
formed from almost any noun or adjective of the first or second 
declension, by changing the stem-vowel into the characteristic a. 
A few add this vowel to the stem, as vigilare, exsulare. 


2 A few verbs of the second conjugation are formed in like 
manner from noun-stems ; but most add the characteristic € to the 
root, and are intransitive or neuter in their meaning. 


3. A few u-stems simply add the characteristic of the third 
conjugation, becoming either active or intransitive, as acuo, fluo. 


4. Most verbs of the fourth conjugation add the characteristic i 
to the root, as scio, salio; many are formed from i-stems, as 
sitio, finio, polio (see § 34). 


b. The following are regular derivative suffixes : — 


sco or isco (§ 36,1) inchoative, denoting the beginning of an 
action; they imply a primitive verb-stem, which is sometimes 
found only in the perfect and supine stems. 


asso, esso, denote attempt to do a thing; they are of the third 
conjugation in the present stem, and of the fourth in the per- 
fect and supine. 
Note. — These are probably denominative, from nouns originally in 
as (Latin es or us), but seem as if formed upon verb-roots. 


to, ito (first conjugation) denote frequent action, being added to 
the actual supine, or to another form of it, with a connecting 
vowel i, changing u to the characteristic a of the first con- 
jugation. 

illo (first conjugation) denotes feeble or trifling action like that of 
some simpler verb, but is formed from some real or supposed 
diminutive noun. 


tirio (fourth conjugation), added to the supine-base, denotes desire 
to do the act expressed by some simple verb; but is formed 
from some noun of agency in tor (sor). Viso is a regular 
inherited desiderative of an earlier formation. 


100 DERIVATION OF WORDS. [44: 3. 


3. Compound Words. In compound words, either 
(1) the second part is merely added to the first; (2) the first 
part modifies the second as an adjective; (3) the first part is 
governed by the second as a verb; or (4) a verb is modified 
by a preposition or adverb prefixed. In all, only the second 
part receives inflection. 


Nore. — The Indo-European family had great power of forming 
compounds with mere stems. ‘This power the Latin for the most part 
lost, as has English compared with German. Many compounds 
attempted by poets failed to become established in the language; but 
there remain many traces of the old usage. 


The most usual compounds may be classed as follows :— 
a. Meanings added: as suovetaurilia, undecim, 


b. Noun with modifying adjective: as latifundium, peninsula, 
teryeminus. 


c. Noun and Verbal: armiger, cornicen, manifestus, carnufex, 
mantele. 


ad. Compound adjectives, in which the last word is a noun, the 
compound acquiring the meaning of possessed of the property de- 
noted, as alipes, magnanimus, concors, anceps (having a head at 
both ends), obvius, multiformis, multiplex. 


e. Compounds of facio, with an actual or formerly existing 
verbal stem in e. These are causative in force, as consuefacio, 
calefacto. . 


f. An Adverb or Noun and a Verb, which have grown together: 
as benedico, satago, jurgo, ausculto. 


g- Verbs with Prepositions, usually having their original ad- 
verbial sense: as, ab, away; ex, out. In those with circum, 
praeter, trans, and sometimes ad and per, the compound retains 
the force of the preposition (§ 42, 3). 


hh. Verbs with the following inseparable Particles, which no 
longer appear as prepositions in Latin: amb (am, an), around ; 
dis, di, asunder (in two); por, forward; red, re, back; sed, se, 
apart. 


PART SECOND. 


USE OF WORDS (SYNTAX). 


45, DeEFINITIONS. 


1. Sentence. A SENTENCE is a form of words which 
contains either a Statement, a Question, an Exclamation, 
or a Command. 


a. A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a DEcLAR- 
ATORY SENTENCE: as, puer vénit, the boy came. 


b, A sentence in the form of a Question is called an INTER- 
ROGATIVE SENTENCE: as, venitne puer, did the boy come? 


ce. A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an 
EXcLAMATORY SENTENCE: as, quam celeriter venit! how fast 
he came ! 


d. A sentence in the form of a Command is called an IMpERA- 
TIVE SENTENCE: as, véni, puer, ad me, come to me, boy. 


2. Subject and Predicate. The Subject of a sentence 
is the person or thing spoken of; the Predicate is that which 
is stated of the Subject. 


a. The Predicate may be either a neuter verb, a noun or 
adjective with the Copula (esse, fiéri, &.), or a Transitive verb 
with its Object. 


b. The verb esse, fo be, when it connects an attribute with 
its subject, is called the Copula; otherwise, it is called the Sub- 
stantive Verb. 

Thus in the sentence sunt viri fortes, there are brave men, 


sunt is a substantive verb; in viri sunt fortes, the men are / 


brave, it is a copula. 


c. The Object of a verb is that on which its action is exerted: 
thus in the sentence pater vocat filium, the father calls his son, 
pater is subject, and filium object, of vocat. 


ad. One or more words, essential to the grammatical complete- 
ness of a sentence, may be unexpressed : this is called ELuipsis, 
and the sentence is called an elliptical sentence. 


f 


¥ 


< c 4 
102 C6 ot 
© © oS 6 
oc a 


pbrinitions. < © [45: 3,4, 5. 


€ S ° 


3. Modification. The Subject or Predicate of a sentence 
may be modified by single words, or by a phrase or clause. 
The modifying word may itself be modified in the same way. 


a. A single modifying word is generally either an Adjective, 
an Adverb, an Appositive (§ 46), or the oblique case of a Noun. 
Thus in the sentence puer formosus venit, a handsome boy 
came, the adjective formosus modifies the subject puer; in the 
sentence celeriter venit, he came quickly, the adverb celeriter 
modifies the predicate venit. 


b. The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word 
to which it belongs: thus in the sentence video pueri patrem, 
I see the boy’s father, the genitive pueri limits patrem. 


4. Phrase. A Phrase is a group of words, without sub4 
ject or predicate of its own, which may be used as an 
Adjective or Adverb. 


Thus in the sentence puer erat eximiae formae, he was a 
boy of remarkable beauty, the words eximiae formae are used 
for the adjective formosus (or formosissimus), and are called 
an ADJECTIVE PHRASE; in the sentence magna celeritate 
venit, he came with great speed, the words magna celeritate are 
used for the adverb celeriter (or celerrime), and are called an 
ADVERBIAL PuHRASE. 


5. Clause. A Clause is a group of words forming part 
of a sentence, and having a subject and predicate of its own. 


Thus in the sentence puer qui heri venit formosus erat, 
the boy who came yesterday was handsome, the words qui heri 
venit are a RELATIVE CLavUsE; in the sentence puer si cras 
veniat acceptus sit, if the boy should come to-morrow he would 
be welcome, the words si cras veniat, are a CONDITIONAL 
CLAUSE. 


_ a. When a Clause is used as the Subject or Object of a verb, 
it is called a Substantive Clause (see § 70). 


6. When a clause is used to modify the subject or predicate of 
a sentence, it is called a Subordinate Clause. Subordinate 
Clauses are Conditional, Temporal, Causal, Consecutive, and 
Final, like the conjunctions which introduce them (§ 43, 1, 6). 


c. When two or more clauses in the same sentence are inde- 
pendent of one another, they are said to be Codérdinate. 


d. Any clause introduced by a Relative is called a Relative 
Clause ; when used simply by way of explanation, and not other- 
wise connected with the form of the sentence, it is called an 
Intermediate Clause (§ 66). 


45; 46.] SUBJECT AND PREDICATE: NOUNS. 103 


e. A clause expressing the purpose of an action is called a 
Final Clause; one expressing its result is called a Consecutive 
Clause (see §§ 64, 65). 


Notrrt.—In English, a Consecutive clause is introduced by the 
phrase so that ; a Final clause by the phrase in order that. 


f. A clause containing a condition, introduced by IF or some 
equivalent (§ 59), is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence 
modified by a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence. 


Nore. — Observe that these classes are not exclusive, but that a 
single clause may belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative 
clause may be subordinate, conditional, or intermediate ; and two 
subordinate clauses may be coordinate with each other. 

_ 6. Connectives. Sentences or codrdinate clauses are 
regularly connected by means of Conjunctions; but fre- 
quently in Latin— very rarely in English — sentences are 
connected by felatives. 


In this case, the relative is often best translated in English by 
a conjunction with a demonstrative: as, quo cum venisset, and 
when he had come there; quae cum ita sint, but since these 
things are so (§ 43, 3, k). 
7%. Agreement. A word is said to AGREE with another 
when it is required to be in the same gender, number, case, or 
person. 


When a word takes the gender or number of some other word 
implied in that with which it should agree, this use is called 
SYNESIS, or consiructio ad sensum. 

8S. Government. A word is said to GOVERN another, 
when it requires the latter to be in a particular case. 


iS Subject and Predicate. 
46. Or Nowns. 


A noun used to describe another, and meaning the 
same thing, agrees with it in Case: as, 
Servius rex, Servius the king. 
ad urbem Solos, fo the city Soli. 
spes nostra Cicero, Cicero our hope. 
homo nata fuerat, she had been born human. 


104 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [46: 1, 2. 


1. When the noun thus used is in the same part of the 
sentence (subject or predicate) it is called an appositive, and 
the use is called apposition. 


2. When the noun is used to form a predicate with esse 
or any other copulative verb, it is called a predicate-nom- 
tnative (or accusative as the case may be). 


externus timor, maximum concordiz vinculum, jungebat ani- 
mos (Liv. ii. 39), fear of the foreigner, the chief bond of har- 
mouy, united hearts. [Here both nouns belong to the sudject.] 


quattuor hic, primum omen, equos vidi (/£n. iii. §37), Zsaw 
here four horses, the first omen. [Here both nouns are in the 
predicate. | 


Ancum Marcium regem populus creavit (Liv. i. 32), the people 
made Ancus Marcius king. (Here regem is called the comfle- 
mentary accusative. | 


consules creantur Cesar et Servilius (B. C. iii. 1), Cesar and 
Servilius are made consuls. [Here consules is Aredicate-nom#- 
native after creantur. | 


litteras Grecas senex didici (Cat. M. 8), 7 learned Greek when 
an old man. [Here senex is in apposition with the subject of 
didici, expressing the ¢éme, condition, &c., of the act. ] 


Gneus et Publius Scipiones, the Scifios, Cnetus and Publius. 
[Here the appositive is Jlural, as referring to more than one 
subject. ] 


gloria virtutem tanquam umbra sequitur (Tusc. i. 45). [Here 
the appositive is introduced by way of comparison. | 


a. The appositive will agree in gender when it can; sometimes 
also in number: as, 


Aristzus, olive inventor (N. D. iii. 18), Arésteus, discoverer of 
the olive. 

eae Minerva inventrix (G. i. 18), Minerva, iuventress of the 
olive. 

quia sequuntur naturam, optimam ducem (Leal. 19), because 
they follow nature, the best guide. 

omnium doctrinarum inventrices Athenas (De Or. i. 4), 
Athens, discoverer of all learning. 


6. A common noun in apposition with a Jocative is put in the 
Ablative, with or without the preposition in: as, 


Antiochie, celebri quondam urbe (Arch. 3), a¢ Antioch, once 
a famous city. 

Alb constiterunt in urbe munita (Phil. iy. 2), chey halted at 
Alba, a fortified town. 


472 3,:2:] ADJECTIVES. 105 


c. The genitive is used in apposition with possessives, taking 
the gender and number of the implied subject: as, 
in nostro omnium fletu (Mil. 34), amd the tears of us ail. 


ex Anniana Milonis domo (Att. iv. 3), out of Annzus Milo’s 
house. 


Norr.— The proper appositive is sometimes put in the Genitive. 
See § 50,1, # Personal Pronouns follow the rules of Nouns. 


47. Or ADJECTIVES. 


Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and 
case. This rule applies also to adjective pronouns and 
participles. 


vir fortis, a brave man. 

cum ducentis militibus, with 200 men. 
consularia munera, the duties of consul. 
hac lege, by this law. 

uno interfecto, one being slain. 


Remark.— The adjective may be either attributive or predi- 
cate. An attributive adjective simply qualifies the noun without 
the intervention of a verb; a predicate adjective is connected 
with its noun by esse, or a verb of similar meaning, expressed or 
implied. : 

An adjective may also be used in apposition like a noun: as, 


Hortensium vivum amavi (Off. iii. 18), 7 loved Hortensius 
when living. 


i. With two or more nouns the adjective is plural (also, 
rarely, when they are connected with cum): as, 
Nisus et Euryalus primi (4E£n. v. 394), Wisus and Euryalus first. 
Juba cum Labieno capti (B. Afr. 52), Fuba and Labienus were 
taken. 
2. When nouns are of different genders, an attributive 
adjective agrees with the nearest: as, 


multz opere ac laboris, of much trouble and toil. 

vita moresque mei, my life and character. 

si res, si vir, si tempus ullum dignum fuit (Mil. 7), ¢f any 
thing, if any man, if any time, was fit. 


a. A predicate adjective may follow the same rule if the sub- 
jects form one connected idea: as, 


factus est strepitus et admurmuratio (Verr. i. 15), a zoise of 
assent was made. 5* 


106 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [47: 2, 3. 


_ 6b. Generally, a predicate adjective will be masculine, if nouns 
of different genders mean living beings; neuter, if things without 
life: as, 
uxor deinde ac liberi amplexi (Liv. ii. 40), then his wife and 
children embraced him. 
labor (M.) voluptasque (F.) societate quadam inter se naturali 


sunt juncta (N.) (id. v. 4), labor and delight are bound 
together by a certain natural alliance. 


c. Abstract nouns of the same gender may have a neuter adjec- 
tive: as, 
stultitia et temeritas et injustitia...sunt fugienda (Fin. iii. 11), 
folly, rashness, and injustice must be shunned. 
pax et concordia jactata sunt (Tac. Hist. ii. 20), peace and 
harmony were talked of. 
d. A masculine or feminine adjective may belong (by Synesis) to 
a noun of different gender or number, when the existence of per- 
sons is implied: as, 
duo milia relicti (Liv. XXXvii. 39), two thousand were left. 
pars certare parati (Ain. v. 108), @ part ready to contend. 
magna pars rapte (Liv. i.9), @ large part [of the women] 
were seized. : 
colonize aliquot deducte, Prisci Latini appellati (id. i. 3), sev- 
eral colonies were led out [of men] called Old Latins. 
e. An adjective pronoun agrees in gender with a word in ap- 
position or a predicate rather than with its antecedent: as, 
rerum caput hoc erat, hic fons (Hor. Ep. i. 17), this was the 
head of things, this the source. 
€am sapientiam interpretantur quam adhuc mortalis nemo est 


consecutus [for id... quod] (Lal. 5), they explain that 
[thing] to be wisdom which no man ever yet attained. 


f. Occasionally, an adjective takes the gender of a partitive 
genitive: as, 
velocissimum animalium delphinus est (Plin.), the dolphin is 
the swiftest of creatures. 
3. Adjectives are often used as nouns, the masculine to 
denote men, and the feminine women: as, 
omnes, all men, or everybody; majores, ancestors; veteres, the 
ancients ; barbari, barbarians; amicus, a friend. 


instinctu purpuratorum (Curt. iii. 9), at the instigation of the 
courtiers [those clad in purple]. 

iniquus noster (Planc. 2.), our foe. 

didicit jam dives avarus laudare disertos (Juv. vii. 30), ¢ke rick 
miser has now learned to flatter the eloquent. 


47: 3, 4.] ADJECTIVES. 107 


Notrre.— The singular of adjectives in this use is more rare; the 
plural is very frequent, and may be used of any adjective or participle, 
to denote those in general described by it. 


a. This is especially frequent with possessives: as, 


nostri, our countrymen, or men of our party. 

Sullani, the veterans of Sulla’s army. 

suos continebat (B. C.i.15), ke held his men in check. 

b. The demonstratives is, ille, &c., used in this way, have 
nearly the force of personal pronouns. ‘They are often thus used 
in apposition with a noun, or a clause: as, 


vincula, eaque sempiterna (Cat. iv. 4), chains, and that for 
ever. 

exspectabam tuas litteras, idque cum multis (Fam. x. 14), JZ, 
with many others, am expecting your letter. 


c- On the other hand, a noun is sometimes used as an adjective, 
and may be qualified by an adverb (compare § 16, 3, e): as, 


victor exercitus, the victorious army. 
servum pecus, @ servile troop. 
admodum puer, guzte a boy. 

magis vir, more of a man. 

fautor inepte (Hor.), @ stupid admirer. 


4. A neuter adjective may be used as a noun — 


a» In the singular, to denote either a single object or an 
abstract quality: as, 


rapto vivere, Zo live by plunder. 
in arido, om dry ground. 
honestum, az honorable act, or honor (as a quality). 


b. In the plural, to signify objects in general having the quality 
denoted, and hence the abstract idea: as, 

honesta, hozorable deeds (in general), or honor (in the ab- 

stract). 

omnium ignarus, ¢gnorant of all. 

justis solutis, the due rites being paid. 

c- In apposition, or as predicate, to a noun of different gen- 
der: as, 


turpitudo pejus est quam dolor (Tusc. ii. 13), disgrace 7s worse 
than pain. 
labor bonum non est (Sen. Ep. 31), fo¢l ts no good thing. 


d. In agreement with an infinitive or a substantive clause: as, 


aliud est errare Cesarem nolle, aliud nolle misereri (Lig. 5), 
tt ts one thing to be unwiliing that Cesar should err, another 
to be unwilling that he should pity. 


\ 


108 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. (47: 655: 7. 


Remark. — The neuter of an adjective is ordinarily used as a 
noun only in the nominative and accusative: as, 


omnia, all things (everything); but, omnium rerum, of ail 
things (omnium is usually of all persons) ;—loquitur de 
omnibus rebus, he talks about everything (de omnibus, 
about everybody). 


5. Adjectives denoting source or possession may be used 
for the genitive: as, 


Pompeiana acies, Pompey’s line. 
video herilem filium (Ter.), / sAy master’s son. 
zs alienum, azother’s money, 1.e. DEBT. 


a. Possessives are thus regularly used for the genitive of the 
personal pronouns: as, 


domus mea, my house; nostra patria, our country. 


b. A possessive in any case may have a genitive in apposition 
(§ 46, c): as, 


mea solius causa, for my sake only. 
nostra omnium patria, the country of us all. 


s 
# 


c. An adjective is occasionally thus used for the objective geni- 
tive (§ 50, 3, 5): as, 


metus hostilis (Jug. 41), fear of the enemy. 

feminca in poena (Virg.), 22 punishing a woman. 

periculo invidie mez (Cat. il. 2), at the risk of odium against 
me. 

studiosus cedis ferine (Ov. M. vii. 675), eager to slaughter 
game. 


6. An adjective, with the subject or object, is often used 
to qualify the act, having the force of an adverb: as, 


primus venit, ke came first (was the first to come). 

nullus dubito, 7 zo way doubt. 

leti audiére, they were glad to hear. 

patre invito discessit, ke departed against his father’s wishes. 

erat Rome frequens (Rosc. Am. 6), ke was often at Rome. 

serus in ceelum redeas (Hor. Od. i. 2), may’st thou return late 
to heaven. 


7. When two qualities of an object are compared, both 
adjectives (or adverbs) are in the comparative: as, 


longior quam latior acies erat (Liv. xxvii. 48), the line was longer 
than it was broad (or, rather long than broad). 


47; 48.] ADJECTIVES: RELATIVES. 109 


a. But not where magis is used: as, 


clari magis quam honesti (Jug. 8), more renowned than honor- 
able. 


b. A comparative with a positive, or even two positives, may 
be thus connected by quam (a rare and less elegant use): as, 


vehementius quam caute (Agric. 4), with more zeal than good 
heed. , 

claris majoribus quam vetustis (Ann. iv. 61), of @ family more 
Jamous than old. 

8. Superlatives denoting order and succession often desig- 


nate not what object, but what part of tt, is meant: as, 


summus mons, ¢he top of the hill. 
in ultima plata, at the end of the avenue. So, 
prior actio, the earlier part of an action. 


Also, medius, midst ; ceterus, other ; reliquus, remaining: as, 


reliqui captivi, ¢hke rest of the prisoners. 
in colle medio (B. G. i. 24), on the middle of the hill. 
inter ceteram planitiem (Jug. 92), 7” @ region elsewhere level. 


Similarly, sera nocte, late at night; nos omnes, all of us 
(§ 50, 2). 

9. The expressions alter... alter, alius...alius (as 
also the adverbs derived from them), may be used recipro- 
cally; or may imply a change of predicate as well as of 
subject: as, 


hi fratres alter alterum amant, ¢hese brothers love each other. 

alius aliud petit, ove man seeks one thing, one another. 

alius alid ex navi, out of different ships. 

alius alia via civitatem auxerunt (Liv. i. 21), they enlarged the 
State each in his own way. | 


For the use of Adjectives as Adverbs, see § 16, 3, f. 
For the ablative used adverbially with Comparatives, see 
§ 54, 6,6 


48. Or RELATIVES. 


A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in gender and 
number ; but its case depends on the construction of 
the clause in which it stands: as, 


puer qui vénit, the boy who came; liber quem legis, the book 
you are reading ; via qua ambulat, the way he walks in. 


110 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [48: 1, 2, 3. 


Notrt.—A Relative is properly an adjective pronoun, of which the 
proper noun (the Antecedent) is usually omitted. The full construc- 
tion would require a corresponding demonstrative, to which the relative 
refers. Hence, relatives serve two uses:—1. As Nouns in their own 
clause; 2. As Connectives, and are thus often equivalent to a demon- 
strative and conjunction combined (see § 69). The connective force is 
not original, but is developed from a demonstrative or indefinite 
meaning; the relative and the antecedent clause being originally 
co-ordinate. 

1. A Verb having a relative as its subject takes the person 
of the expressed or implied antecedent: as, 


adsum qui feci (Ain. ix. 427), here am Iwho did it. 


2. A relative generally agrees in gender with a noun 
(appositive) in its own clause, rather than with an antecedent 
of different gender: as, 

mare etiam quem Neptunum esse dicebas (N. D. iii. 20), the 

sea, too, which you said was Neptune. 

a. A relative may (rarely) by Attraction agree with its ante- 
cedent in case: as, 


si aliquid agas eorum quorum consuésti (Fam. v. 14), 7 you do 
something of what you are used to. 


b. A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied 
antecedent : -as, 


~quartum genus... qui premuntur (Cat. ii. 10), @ fourth class, 
that are sinking. 
unus ex eo numero qui parati erant (Jug. 35), one of the number 
[of those] who were ready. | 
conjuravére pauci. .. de qua [conjuratione] dicam (Sall. C. 18), 
a few have conspired... of which [conspiracy] J will speak. 


%. The antecedent noun sometimes appears in both clauses; 
usually only in the one that precedes; sometimes it is wholly 
omitted: thus — 

a. The noun may be repeated in the relative clause: as, 


loci natura erat hec quem locum nostri delegerant (B. G. ii. 18), 
the nature of the ground which our men had chosen was this. 


bo. The noun may appear only in the relative clause: as, 


quas res in consulatu nostro gessimus attigit hic versibus 
(Arch. 11), ke has touched in verse the things which we did 
in our consulship. 

wrbem-quam statuo vestra est (4En. i. 573), yours is the city 
which I found. . 


48: 3, 4, 5-] RELATIVES. | 111 


In such cases the demonstrative is or hic usually stands in the 
antecedent clause: as, 

que pars civitatis calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea 

princeps poenas persolvit (B.G. i. 12), that part of the State 


which had brought disaster on the Roman people was the first 
to pay the penalty. 


Remark. —In a sentence of this class, the relative clause in 
Latin usually stands first; but, in translating, the noun should be 
transferred, in its proper case, to the antecedent clause, as in the 
example just quoted. 


c. The antecedent noun may be omitted: as, 


qui decime legionis aquilam ferebat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man] 
who bore the eagle of the tenth legion. 
qui cognoscerent misit (id. i. 21), 4e sent men to reconnoitre. 
d. A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) agreeing 
with the antecedent may stand in the relative clause: as, 
vasa ea que pulcherrima apud eum viderat (Verr. iv. 27), those 
most beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house. 
e. The phrase id quod or quae res is used (instead of quod 
alone) to relate to an idea or group of words before expressed: 
[obtrectatum est] Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio? an utrique — 


id quod est verius? (Manil. 19), az affront is offered shall I 
say to Gabinius or Pompey? or—which ts truer — to both ? 


4. A relative often stands at the beginning of a clause or 
° ° ° Ns 
sentence, where in English a demonstrative must be used : as, )” 


quz cum ita sint, szuce these things are so. 

quorum quod simile factum? (Cat. iv. 8), what deed of theirs 
— déke thrs ? } 

qui illius in te amor fuit (Fam. iv. 5), suck was his love for you. 


5. A Relative Adverb is often equivalent to the relative 
pronoun with a preposition: as, 
quo (= ad quem), to whom; unde (=a quo), from whom, &e.: as, 


apud eos quo se contulit (Verr. iv. 18), among those to whom he 
resorted. 

qui eum necasset unde ipse natus esset (Rosc. Am. 26), ove 
who should have slain his own father. 


A similar use is found with the demonstratives eo, inde, &c: as, 


eo imponit vasa (Jug. 75), upon them [the beasts] he puts the 
baggage. 


112 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. (49: 1. 


49. VERBS. 


A Verb agrees with its subject-nominative in num- 
ber and person: as, 
ego statuo, J resolve; oratio est habita, the plea was spoken. 


Remark. — The verb in the periphrastic forms sometimes agrees 
in gender and number with the predicate, or with a noun in 
apposition: as, . 

non omnis error stultitia est dicenda (Parad. vi. 3), mot every 

error should be called folly. 

Corinthus lumen Greciz exstinctum est, Corinth the light of 

Greece ts put out. 

delicize mez Dicearchus disseruit (Tusc. i. 31), my pet Dicear- 

chus discoursed. 


1, Two or more singular subjects take a verb in the 
plural; also, rarely, when one is in the ablative with cum: 
(compare § 47, 1), as, 


pater et avus mortui sunt, his father and grandfather are 
dead. 

dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur (Liv. xxi. 60), ke gen- 
eral and several chiefs are taken. 


a. When the subjects are of different persons, the verb will be 
in the first person rather than the second, and the second rather 
than the third: as, 


si tu et Tullia valetis ego et Cicero valemus (Fam. xiv. 5), 7f 
you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well. 


6. If the subjects are joined by disjunctives, or if they are con- 
sidered as a single whole, the verb is singular: as, 


neque fides neque jusjurandum neque illum misericordia repres- 
sit (Ter. Ad.), zot faith nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked 
him. 

Senatus populusque Romanus intellegit (Fam. v.8), the Roman 
Senate and people understand. 


c. A collective noun—also such distributives as quisque, 
every ; uterque, each— may take a plural verb: as, 


pars predas agebant (Jug. 32), a part brought in booty. 
suum quisque habeant quod suum est (Plaut. Curc.), de¢ every 
one keep his own. 


This is most common in poetry. 


49: 1,2. 50.] CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. 113 


d. When the action of the verb belongs to the subjects separ- 
ately, it may agree with one and be understood with the others : as, 


intercedit M. Antonius et Cassius tribuni plebis (B. C. i. 2), 
Antony and Casstus, tribunes of the people, interpose. 


2. The Subject of a finite verb is in the nominative. 

Dertn.—A Finite Verb is a verb in any mood except the In- 
finitive. 

a. The personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless 
emphatic: thus, | 


loquor, I speak; ego loquor, it is I that speak. 
b. An indejinite subject is often omitted: as, 
dicunt (ferunt, perhibent), they say. 
c. The verb is sometimes omitted in certain phrases: as, 


quorsum hec [spectant]? what does this aim at ? 
ex ungue leonem [cognosces], you will know a lion by his claw. 


The indicative and infinitive of esse are most frequently omitted. 
(For the Historicat INFINITIVE, see § 57, 8, h.) 


II. Construction of Cases. 


Norr. — The Oblique Cases of nouns express their relations to other 
words in the sentence. Originally, the family of languages to which 
Latin belongs had at least seven cases, besides the vocative, all ex- 
pressing different relations. Of these the Locative and Instrumental 
cases were lost, and their functions divided among the others (p. 237). 

The names of the cases, except the Ablative, are of Greek origin. 
The name genitive— Gr. yevexn, from yévos — refers, originally, to the 
class to which anything belongs. The dative—Soriky —is the case 
of giving. The name accusative is a mistranslation of airvariKxh, signi- 
fying that which is effected or caused (airla). 


50. GENITIVE. 


A noun used to limit or define another, and not 
meaning the same thing, is put in the genitive. 


Norter. — This relation is most frequently expressed in English by 
the preposition or. The genitive seems originally to have meant 
that from which something springs ; hence, that to which it belongs. From 
this signification most of its others may be deduced. 


114 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. | [50: 1. 


1. Subjective Genitive. The Genitive is used to denote 
the Author, Owner, Source, and (with an adjective) Measure 
or Quality : as, 

libri Ciceronis, the books of Cicero. 
Cesaris horti, Cesar’s gardens. 
culmen tecti, the roof of the house. 

a. For the genitive of possession a possessive adjective is often 
used, — regularly for that of the personal pronouns: as, 


liber meus, my book. 
aliena pericula, other men’s dangers. 
Sullana tempora, ¢he times of Sulla. 


b. The noun limited is understood in a few expressions: as, 


Castoris [edes], tke [temple] of Castor. 
Hectoris Andromache, Hector’s [wife] Andromache. 


c. The genitive is often in the predicate, connected with its 
noun by a verb, like a predicate appositive: as, 


hec'domus est patris mei, ¢k7s house ts my father’s. 

tutele nostre [eos] duximus (Liv.), we held them to be in our 
protection. 

Thrasybuli facta lucri fecit (Nep. viii. 1), ke made profit of the 
deeds of Thrasybulus. 

Tyros mare dicionis sue fecit (Curt. iv. 4), Zyre brought the 
sea under her sway. 

hominum non causarum toti erant (Liv. iii. 36), they belonged 
wholly to the men, not to the cause. 


d. A phrase or clause often stands for the limited-noun ; this is 
most frequent with the genitive of adjectives or abstract nouns: as, 


neque sui judici [erat] decernere (B. C. i. 35), ¢# was not for 

his judgment to decide. 
_ timidi est optare necem (Ov. M. iv. 15), ¢¢ zs for the coward to 

wish for death. __ 
Remark. — The genitive of an adjective (especially of the third 
~\ declension) is thus used instead of the neuter nominative: as, 

sapientis [zo¢ sapiens] est pauca loqui, ¢¢ ¢s wise [the part of a 

wise man] Zo say dittle. 


The neuter of possessives is used in the same way: as, 

mentiri non est meum, ¢¢ 7s not for me to lie. 

humanum [ for hominis] est errare, i 7s man’s to err. 

e- A genitive may denote the substance of which a thing con- 

sists (a modified form of the idea of source): as, 

talentum auri, @ falent of gold. 

flumina lactis, r7vers of milk. 

navis auri (compare Part. Gen.), @ skipload of gold. 


50%: 3;.2.] GENITIVE. 115 


f. A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in 
apposition: as, 
nomen insaniz, the word madness. 
oppidum Antiochiz, the city of Antiock. 
g- The genitive is used to denote quality, but only when the 
quality is modified by an adjective (usually an indefinite one): as, a 


vir summe virtutis, a man of the highest courage. 
magne est deliberationis, ¢¢ 7s an affair of great deliberation. 
magni formica laboris, ke ant, [a creature] of great toil. 


So ejus modi, of that sort. 
(Compare the Ablative of Quality, § 54, 7.) 


h. The genitive. (of quality), with numerals, is used to define 
measures of length, depth, &c.: as, 

fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet [depth]. 

murus sedecim pedum, @ wall sixteen feet {high}. 

minor nullaerat duim milium amphorim (Fam. xii. 15), zone 

held less than 2000 jars. | 

4. Certain adjectives of Quantity —as magni, pluris, and the 
like—are used in the genitive to express indefinite value. (Also 
the nouns nihili, flocci, nauci, pili, pensi, terunci, assis, see 
Ablative of Price, § 54, 8.) 


Remark.— The genitive is often used with the ablatives 
causa, gratia, for the sake of; ergo, because of; and the inde- 
clinable instar, like. . 


R Casey 

2. Partitive Genitive. Words denoting a part are fol- 
lowed by the genitive of the whole to which the part belongs. 
Partitive words are the following : — 

a- Nouns or Pronouns: as, 


pars militum, part of the soldiers. 

quis nostrum, which of us ? (but nos omnes, all of us). 

nihil erat reliqui, there was nothing left. 

vastatur agri [id] quod... (Liv. i. 14), so much of the land is 
wasted as, &c. 


6. Numerals, Comparatives, and Superlatives: as, 
alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls. 
unus tribunorum, one of the tribunes. 


plurimum totius Galliz equitatu valet (B. G. v. 3), ¢s strongest 
in cavalry of all Gaul. 


c- Neuter adjectives and pronouns used as nouns: as, 


tantum spati, so much space. 
aliquid nummorum, @ few pence. 
id loci (er locorum), ¢hat spot of ground. 


116 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [50: 2. 


id temporis, af that time. 
plana urbis, the level farts of the town. 
quid novi, what news ? 


Remark. — Of adjectives of the third declension the genitive 
is only rarely used in this way: thus, 


nihil novi (gen.), nothing new ; but 
nihil memorabile (nom.), zothing worth mention. 


d. Adverbs, especially of Quantity and Place: as, 


satis pecuniz, money enough. 

parum oti, zot much ease. 

ubinam gentium sumus, where in the world are we ? 
inde loci, zext in order. 

istuc equi bonique, ¢o that degree of equity and goodness. 
tum temporis, at that point of time. 

eo miseriarum (Sall.), 2o that pitch of misery. - 


e. The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive 
after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case: as, 


sequimur te sancte deorum (En. iv. 576), we follow thee, O 
holy deity. 

nigre lanarum (Plin. H.N. viii. 48), dlack wools. 

electi juvenum (Liv. xxx. 9), the choice of the young men. 


Remark. —1. Cardinal numbers, with quidam, a certain one, 
\ more commonly, other words rarely, take the ablative with e (ex) 
: or de, instead of the genitive: as, 


unus ex tribunis, ove of the tribunes. 
minumus ex illis (Jug. 11), the youngest of them. 
medius ex tribus (ib.), ¢he midst of the three. 


2 With nouns uterque generally agrees as an adjective; but 
with pronouns it always takes a genitive: as, 


uterque consul, doth the consuls. 
uterque nostrum, doth of us. 


3. Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any- 
thing — as omnes, all; quot, how many—take a case in agree- 
ment, and not the partitive genitive: as, 


= 


nos omnes, all of us. 

qui omnes, all of whom. 

quot sunt hostes, how many of the enemy are there? 

cave inimicos qui multi sunt, Beware of your enemies, of whom 


you have many. 
So when no others are thought of, although such exist: as, 


multi milites, many of the soldiers. 
nemo Romanus, zot one Roman. 


50: 3.] GENITIVE. 117 


é 


4. Rarely two genitives are used with one noun: as, 


animi multarum rerum percursio (Tusc. iv. 13), the mind’s 
traversing of many things. 


5. The Partitive genitive of the Personal Pronouns is the form in 
um (nostrum, vestrum); that in i (mei, nostri, &c.) is Objective. 


_f 3. Objective Genitive. With many nouns and adjec- 
ive implying action, the genitive is used to denote the object. 


Notr.— This is an extension of the idea of belonging to; as in the 
phrase odium Caesaris, hate of Cesar, the hate in a passive sense 
belongs to Cesar, though in its active sense he is the object of it. 


a. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the genitive 
of the object: as, 


desiderium oti, longing for rest. 

vacatio militia, a respite of military service. 

gratia benefici, grat:tude for a kindness. 

fuga malorum, refuge from disaster. 

laudator temporis acti, a pratser of the past. 

injuria mulierum Sabinarum (Liv.), the wrong done to the 
Sabine women. 

memoria nostri tua (Fam. xiii. 17), your memory of us. 

consensio divinarum humanarumque rerum (Lel. 6), @ har- 
mony in divine and human things. 

vim suorum pro suo periculo defendebant (B.C. iii. 110). zhey 
parried the attack on their comrades as tf it were their own 
peril. 


Occasionally possessive adjectives are used in the same way (see 
§ 47, 5, c). 

6. Adjectives requiring an object of reference (relative adjec- 
tives) govern the genitive. 


These are—1. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, 
Julness, power, sharing, guilt, and their opposites; 2. Verbals in 
ax; 3. Participles in ns when used to denote a disposition and 
not a particular act, so that they become adjectives: as, 


avidus laudis, greedy of praise. 

fastidiosus literarum, disdaining letters. 

juris peritus, sklled in law. 

habetis ducem memorem vestri oblitum sui (Cat. iv. 9), you 
have a leader who thinks of you and forgets himself. 

plena consiliorum inania verborum (De Or. i. 9), fudl of wis- 
dom, void of words. 

rationis et orationis expertes (Off. i. 16), devoid of reason and 
speech. 

virtutis compos (id.), Jossessed of virtue. 

paternorum bonorum exheres (De Or. i. 38), ousted from his 
SJather’s estate. 

rei capitalis affinis (2 Verr. ii. 43), accessory to a capital crime. 

justum ac tenacem propositi virum (Hor: Od. iii. 3), @ man_just 
and steadfast to his purpose. 


118 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [50: 3. 


si quem tui amantiorem cognovisti (Q. Fr. ix. 1), if you have 
known any more fond of you. 

multitudo insolens belli (B. C. ii. 36), @ crowd unused to war. 

sitiens sanguinis, ¢hirsting for blood. But, 

Tiberius sitiens sanguinem (Tac.), Zberius [then] ¢hirsting 
for blood. 


¢. Some other adjectives of similar meaning occasionally take 
the genitive; and the poets and late writers use almost any adjec- 
tive with a genitive of specification: as, 


callidus rei militaris (Tac. H. ii. 31), skélled tn soldtership. 

pecuniz liberales (Sall. C. 7), Zavish of money. 

virtutum sterile seculum (id. i. 3), @ century barren in virtue. 

pauper aquarum (Hor.), scant of water. | 

prodigus eris (id.), a spendthrift of wealth. 

notus animi, of known bravery. 

fessi rerum (Virg.), weary of toil. 

lata laborum (id.), glad of work. 

modicus voluptatis, moderate in pleasure. 

integer vite scelerisque purus (Hor.), upright in life, and 
clear of guilt. 

docilis modorum (id.), zeachable in measures. 


Remark. — Animi (strictly a locative, plural animis), is added 
to adjectives of feeling: as, 


4 


zeger animi, sick at heart. 
confusus animi, disturbed in spirit. 


d. A few adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging — requir- 
ing the dative as such—take the possessive genitive: these are, 
aequalis, affinis, communis, finitimus, par, propinquus, pro- 
prius (regularly), similis, vicinus (see p. 129). 


Remark. — One noun limiting another is regularly used in the 
genitive, and not with a preposition, — prepositions being origi- 
nally adverbs, and requiring a verb. Sometimes, however, one 
noun has another connected with it by a preposition. This hap- 
pens with nouns of action, feeling, and motion; some relations of 
place to or in which or from which (including origin); accompani- 
ment, &c.: as, 


odium in Czsarem (or odium Cesaris), hate of Cesar. 
merita erga me (Cic.), services to me. 

auxilium adversus inimicos (id.), Zelp against enemies. 
reditus in celum (id.), return to heaven. 

impetus in me (id.), attack on me. 

excessus e vita (id.), departure from life. 

e preelio nuntius, @ messenger y the battle. 

castra ad Bagradam (Ces.), camp near the Bagrada. 
invidia ob scelera (Sall.), odium for his crimes. So, 
domum reditionis spes (B.G.i.5), hope of returning home. 


50: 4.] GENITIVE. )! 119 


~ 


) < | 
4. Genitive after Verbs. The “genitive is used as the 
object of several classes of Verbs. | : 


a. Verbs of Remembering, Forgetting, and Reminding, take 
the genitive of the object when they are used of a continued state 
of mind, but the accusative when used of a single act: as, 


pueritia memoriam recordari (Arch.i.), to recall the memory 
of childhood. ) 
animus meminit preteritorum (Div. i. 30), the soul remembers 
the past. 
venit mihi in mentem illius diei, 7 dethought me of that day. 
obliviscere cedis atque incendiorum (Cat. i.3), Zurn your mind 
from slaughter and conflagrations. 
bona przterita non meminerunt (Fin. ii. 20), they do not re- 
member past blessings. 
memineram Paullum (Cat. M. 2), 2 remembered Paulus. 
memini etiam que nolo (Fin. ii. 33), 2 remember even what I 
would not. 
totam causam oblitus est (Brut. 60), ze forgot the whole case. 
Remark. — The above distinction is unimportant as to verbs of 
reminding, which take the genitive except of neuter pronouns: as, 
hoc te admoneo, / warn you of this. The accusative is always 
used of a person or thing remembered by an eye-witness. Recordor 
is almost always construed with an accusative, or with a phrase or 
clause. / 


b. Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting, take the 
genitive of the charge or penalty: as, 


arguit me furti, Ze accuses me of theft. 

peculatis damnatus (pecunize publice damnatus) (Flac. 18), 
condemned for embezzlement. 

capitis damnatus, condemned to death. 


Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are — 


capitis (damnare capitis, to sentence to death) ; 

majestatis, treason (crime against the dignity of the State) ; 

repetundarum, eztortion (lit. of an action for claiming back 
money wrongfully taken) ; 

voti (damnatus or reus voti, bound to the payment of one’s 
vow, i.e. successful in one’s effort). 


Remark.— The crime may be expressed by the ablative with 
de; the punishment by the ablative alone: as, 


de vi et majestatis damnati (Phil.i.), condemned of assault and 
treason. 

vitia autem hominum atque fraudes damnis, ignominiis, vin- 
culis, verberibus, exiliis, morte damnantur (De Or. i 43), 
but the vices and crimes of men are punished with fines, dis- 
honor, chains, scourging, exile, death. 


But, inter sicarios accusare (defendere), to accuse of murder. 


wo 


120 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [50: 4. 


c. Many verbs of Emotion take the genitive of the object which 
excites the feeling (Gen. of source). These are— 
1. Verbs of pity, as misereor and miseresco: as, 


miserescite regis (in. viii. 573), pity the king. 
miserere animi non digna ferentis (id. ii. 144), Déty a soul that 
endures unworthy things. 


But miseror, commiseror, bewail, take the accusative. 


| 2 The impersonals miseret, piget, paenitet, pudet, taedet 


{' (or pertaesum est), which take also the accusative of the person 


& 


affected (§ 39, 2): as, 


hos homines infamiz suz neque pudet neque tedet (Verr. i. 
12), these men are neither ashamed nor weary of their dis- 
honor. 


Remark. — An infinitive or clause may be used with these verbs 
instead of the genitive of a noun: as, 


me pznitet hec fecisse, J repent of having done this. 
Sometimes they are used personally: as, 
nonne te hec pudent (Ter. Ad.), do not these things shame 
you ? 
d. The impersonals interest and réfert, it concerns, take the 
genitive of the person affected,-—the subject of the verb being a 
\ neuter pronoun or a substantive clause: as, 


‘ Clodi intererat Milonem perire (Mil. 21); it was the interest of 


Clodius that Milo should die. Wh MA I Ser Fhe Yi 


But instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the possessive is 
used in the ablative singular feminine: as, 
quid tua id refert?— magni (Ter. Ph.), how does that concern 
you? much. 
réfert is seldom used in any other way; but it takes, rarely, the 
dativus commodi (Hor. Sat. i. 1, 49). The object of interest is 
sometimes in the accusative with ad: as, 
magni ad honorem nostrum interest (Fam. xvi. 1), 7 zs of 
consequence to our honor. 


Notre. — The word interest may be used (1) impersonally with the 
genitive, as above; (2) personally with the dative: as, interest exer- 
citui, he is present with the army; (8) with the accusative and pre- 
positions: as, interest inter exercitum et castra, he is between —or, 
there is a difference between — the army and camp. 


e- Some verbs of plenty and want govern the genitive (rarely, 
except egeo and indigeo, need, see § 54, I, e): as, 


quid est quod defensionis indigeat? (Rosc. Am. 12), what ts 
there that needs defence ? 
_satagit rerum suarun, fe has his hands full with his own affairs. 


§1: 1.] DATIVE. 121 


Also, sometimes, potior, get possession of ; as always in the phrase 
potiri rerum, fo be master of affairs. But these verbs more 
commonly take the ablative. 


Remark. — The genitive is also used after the adverbs pridie, 
the day before; postridie, the day after; tenus, as far as: ergo, 
on account of (properly an ablative). 


51. DarTive. 


The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected 
by the action: this is usually denoted in English by 
10 or FOR (Indirect Object). 


Nore. — The dative seems to have the primary meaning of towards, 
and to be closely akin to the Locative. But this meaning is lost in 
Latin, except in some adverbial forms (eo, illo, &c.) and in the poets. 
In most of its derived meanings, it denotes an object not merely (like 
the Accusative) as passively affected by the action, or caused by it; but 
as reciprocally sharing in the action, or receiving it actively. Thus, in 
dedit mihi librum, fe gave me a book, or fecit mihi injuriam, he did 
mean injury; it is 1 that receive the book or feel the wrong. Hence 
persons, or objects personified, are most likely to be in the dative. 
So in the Spanish, the dative is used whenever a Person is the object | 
of an action: as, yo veo al hombre, J see the man. 

As this difference between the accusative and dative (direct and | 
indirect object) depends on the view taken by the writer, verbs of | 
similar meaning in different languages, or even in the same, differ in | 
the case of the object. In English, especially, owing to the loss of its | 
cases, many verbs are construed as transitive, which in Latin require 
the dative. Thus believe, which in English originally governed the 
genitive, has become transitive; while the corresponding verb in 
Latin, credo (a compound of cred and do (GE), to place confidence in) 
takes the dative. 


1. Dative with Transitives. Transitive verbs, whose 
meaning permits it, take the dative of the indirect object, with 
the accusative of the direct. 


These are, especially, verbs of Giving, Telling, Sending, and 
the like: as, 


do tibi librum, 7 g?ve you a book. 

valetudini tribuamus aliquid (Tusc. i. 118), let us allow some 
thing to health. 

illud tibi affirmo (Fam. i. 7), ¢his J assure you. 

Pompeio plurimum debebam (id. i. 9), J owed much to Pompey. 

id omne tibi polliceor ac defero (Man. 24), adl this J Promise 
you and bestow. 6 


122 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [S1:° 1, 2. 


commendo tibi ejus omnia negotia (Fam. i.1), J put all his 
affairs tn your hands. 

amico munusculum mittere (id. ix. 12), to send a slight tribute 
to a friend. eee 

illi inimico servum remisit (Deiot. ii.), to kim, his enemy, he 
returned a slave. ; ss \ od. 

dabis profecto misericordiz quod iracundie negavisti (id. 14), 
you will surely grant to mercy what you refused to wrath. 

Karthagini bellum denuntio (Cat. M. 6)§ Z aanounce war to 
Carthage. A : ; 

curis gaudia misces (Catull.— only poet.), thou minglest joy 
with care. 


a. In the passive, such verbs retain the dative of the indirect 
object (see 2, f) : as, 
hec nobis nuntiantur, these things are told us. 


b. When the idea of motion is distinctly conveyed, a preposi- 
tion is used (except by poetic use): as, 
| has litteras ad te mitto, J send you this letter. 


c. A few verbs of this class—under a different view of the 
action— may take the accusative of a person, with an ablative of 
means. 


Such verbs are dono, impertio, induo, exuo, adspergo, 
inspergo, circumdo, circumfundo, prohibeo, intercludo. 


Thus — 


donat coronas suis, ke presents wreaths to his men; or, 

donat suos coronis, he presents his men with wreaths. 

pomis se induit arbos (G. iv. 143), the tree decks ttself with 

rutts.  - 

oe (dat.) armis exutis (B. G. iii. 6), the forces being stripped 
of arms. 

aram sanguine adspergere (N. D. iii. 36), fo sprinkle the altar 
with blood. 


2. Dative after Intransitives. Intransitive verbs take 
the dative of the indirect object only: as, 


_ cedant arma toge (Phil. i. 8), let arms give way to the gown. 

quid homini potest turpius usuvenire (Quinct. 15), what 
more shameful can befall a man ? 

respondi maximis criminibus (Phil. i. 14), 7 have answered the 

heaviest charges. 

ut ita cuique eveniat (id. 46), that zt may so turn out to each. 

manent ingenia senibus (Cat. M. 7), old men keep thetr powers 
of mind. 

vento et fluctibus loqui (Lucr. iv. 491), to talk to wind and 
Wave. 


51: 2.] DATIVE. 123 


nec quereris patri (Juv. ii. 131), you complain not to a father. 
non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum (Hor. Ep. i. 17), 
it ts not every man’s luck to go to Corinth. 


a. Most verbs signifying to favor, help, please, serve, trust, 
and their contraries, — also, to believe, persuade, command, obey, 
envy, threaten, pardon, and spare,—take the Dative in Latin, 
though transitive in English. ae 

These include, among others, the following: adversor, credo, 
faveo, fido, ignosco, impéro, invideo, irascor, noceo, parco, 
pareo, placeo, servio, studeo, suaddeo (persuadeo): as, 


cur mihi invides, why do you envy me ? 

civitati serviebat, he served the state. 

tibi favemus, we favor you. 

mihi parcit atque ignoscit, ke spares and pardons me. . 

sontibus opitulari poteram (Fam. iv. 13), 4 was able to help the 

wlty. 

bernie invident (Sall.), they envy the good. 

Catoni resistimus (Fam. 1. 1), we withstand Cato. 

non omnibus servio (id. xvi. 13), 7 am not a servant to every 
man. 

cum ‘ceteris tum mihi ipsi displiceo (id. iv. 13), Z déssatisfy 
other people and myself too. 

non parcam opere (id. xvi. 13), 7 will share no pains. 

sic mihi persuasi (Cat. M. 21), so J have persuaded myself. 

huic legioni Czsar confidebat maxime (B. G. i. 40), z# this 
legion Cesar had special confidence. 

ex quo efficitur hominem nature obedientem homini nocere 
non posse (Off. iii. 5), whence tt appears that a man while 
obeying Nature cannot harm a fellow-man. 


Remark. —1. Some verbs of the same meanings take the ac- 
cusative: as, juvo, adjtivo, help; laedo, injure; jubeo, order; 
deficio, fail. Pe 


2. Some take the dative or accusative indifferently: as, adiilor, 
flatter; aemiilor, rival; comitor, atfend; despéro, despair; 
praestolor, await; medeor, medicor, heal. 


3. Some take the dative or accusative according to their mean- 
ing: as, 2 


parti civium consulunt (Off. i. 25), they consult for a party 
of the citizens. 

cum te consuluissem (Fam. xi. 29), when I had consulted you. 

metuens pueris (Plaut. Am. v. 1), azxtous for the boys. 

nec metuunt deos (Ter. Hec. v. 2), they fear not even the gods 

~ (so also ¢/meo.) | 

ei cavere volo (Fam. iii. 1), 7 will have a care for him. 

caveto omnia (id. xi. 21), beware of everything. 


124 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [51: 2. 


prospicite patriz (Cat. iv. 2), have regard for the state. 

prospicere sedem senectuti (Liv. iv. 49), to provide a habita- 
tion for old age [so also providere |. 

nequeo mihi temperare (Plin. xviii. 6), Z cannot control myself. 

rempublicam temperare (Tusc. i. 1), 20 govern the state [so 
also moderor |. 


See Lexicon, under convenio, cupio, fido (abl.), insisto, 
maneo, praesto, praeverto, recipio, renuntio, solvo, succedo. 


b. The dative is used after the Impersonals libet, licet; after 
verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male; together with 
the following: —gratificor, gratulor, haereo (rarely), jungo, 
medeor, medicor, misceo (poetic), nubo, permitto, plaudo, 
probo, studeo, supplico; and the phrases auctor esse, gratias 
agere (habere), morem gerere (morigeror), supplex (dicto 
audiens) esse: as, 


quod mihi maxime lubet (Fam. i. 18), what most pleases me. 

Di isti Segulio male faciant (id. xi. 21), may the gods send evil 
upon that Segulius. 

mihi ipsi nunquam satisfacio (id. 17), Z ever satisfy myself. 

Pompeio se gratificari putant (id. i. 1), they suppose they are 
doing Pompey a service. 

sed tibi morem gessi (id. ii. 18), but J have deferred to you. 

tibi permitto respondere (N. D. iii. 1), J give you leave to 
answer. 

armatus adversario maledixi (Fam. vi. 7), 22 arms J cursed the 

0e. 

oA iat aurium morigerari (Or. 48), to kumor the lust of the 
ears. 

habeo senectuti maximam gratiam (Cat. M. 14), J owe old age 
much thanks. 

maximas tibi gratias ago, J return you the warmest thanks. 


c. Many verbs of the above classes take an accusative of the 
thing, with a dative of the person: as, 


cui cum rex crucem minitaretur (Tusc. i. 43), when the king 
threatened him with the cross. 

invident nobis optimam magistram (id. iii. 2), they grudge us 
our best of teachers [Nature]. 

frumento exercitui proviso (B. G. v. 44), when the army was 
supplied with corn. 

puerum [vocare] cui cenam imperaret (Ros. Am. 21), Zo calla 
boy and order supper of him. 

imperat oppidanis decem talenta, he exacts ten talents of the 
townspeople. 

omnia sibi ignoscere (Vell. ii. 30), 2o Jardon one's self every- 
thing. 


a3) DATIVE. 125 


d. Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, 
post, prae, pro, sub, super — and some with circum — take the 
dative of the object on account of their acquired meaning (many 
take also the accusative, being originally transitive): as, ; 


neque enim assentior iis (Lzl. 3), for / do not agree with them. 

tempestati obsequi artis est (Fam. i. 9), zt 2s a point of skill to 
yield to the weather. : 

omnibus negotiis non interfuit solum sed prefuit (id. i. 6), he 
not only had a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them. 

pueritie adulescentia obrepit (Cat. M.), youth steals upon 
childhood. 

[Archie] antecellere omnibus contigit (Arch. 3), z¢ was his 
good fortune to outvie all. 

quantum natura hominis pecudibus antecedit (Off. i. 30), so 
far as man’s nature ts superior to brutes. 

nos ei succedimus (Fam. vii. 31), we succeed him. 

criminibus illis pro rege se supponit reum (Deiot. 15), ke takes 
those charges upon himself in the king's behalf. 

nec unquam succumbet inimicis (id. 13), he will never bend 
before his foes. 

illis libellis nomen suum inscribunt (Arch. 13), they put their 
own name to those papers. 

tibi obtempera (F. il. 7), restrazu yourself. . 

hibernis Labienum preposuit (Ces.), ke set Labienus over 
the winter-quarters. 

cur mihi te offers, ac meis commodis officis et obstas (Ros. 
Am. 38), why do you offer yourself to me, and then hinder and 
withstand my advantage ? 


So excello: as, 
tu longe aliis excellis (De Or. ii. 54), you far excel others. 


Remark. —1. Some of the above compounds acquire a transi- 
tive meaning, and take the accusative: as, aggredior, approach ; 
adire, goto; antecedo, anteeo, antegradior, precede (both cases) ; 
convenio, meet; ineo, enter; obeo, encounter; offendo, hit; 
oppugno, oppose; subeo, go under (take up): as, 


nos oppugnat (Fam. i. 1), ke opposes us. 
quis audeat bene comitatum aggredi, who would dare encounter 
a man well-attended ? 
munus obire (Leal. 2), 4o attend to a duty. 


' 
% 


2 The adjective obvius —also the adverb obviam—with@ | 
werb takes the dative: as, Y 
si ille obvius ei futurus non erat (Mil. 18), ¢f he was not intend- 

ing to get in his way. 
mihi obviam venisti (Fam. ii. 16), you came to meet me. 


126 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [S1: 2, 3. 


e. Many compounds of ab, de, ex, with adimo, take the dative 
(especially of persons) instead of the ablative of separation, — 
the action being more vividly represented as done to the object 
affected by it (so rarely other verbs by analogy) : as, 


vitam adulescentibus vis aufert (C. M. 19), force deprives young 
men of life. | 

_.. nihil enim tibi detraxit senectus (id.1), for age has robbed you 
of nothing. 

nec mihi hunc errorem extorqueri volo (id. 23), zor do I wish 
this error wrested from me. 

cum extorta mihi veritas esset (Or. 48), when the truth had 


been forced from me (compare furatur, Off. ii. 11). 


Remark. — The distinct idea of place, — and, in general, names 
of things, — require the ablative with a preposition; or both con- 
structions may be used together: as, 


illum ex periculo eripuit (B. G. iv. 12), ke dragged him out of 
danger. 

victoriam eripi sibi e manibus, ¢hat victory should be wrested 
Srom his hands. 


f. Intransitive verbs governing the dative can be used in the 
Passive only impersonally: as, 


cui parci potuit (Liv. xxi. 12), who could be spared ? 

non modo non invidetur illi etati verum etiam favetur (Off. ii. 
13), that age [youth] ¢s xot only not envied, but ts even favored. 

mihi quidem persuaderi nunquam potuit (C. M. 22), Z for my 
part could never be persuaded. 

resistendum senectuti est (id. 11), we must resist old age. 

plaudi tibi non solere (Deiot. 12), that you are not wont to be 
applauded. 

tempori serviendum est (Fam. ix. 7), we must serve the time. 


g- The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which 
would strictly require another case with a preposition: as, 


differt sermoni (Hor.), differs from prose [a sermone]. 
tibi certet (Virg.). may vie with you [tecum]. 
lateri abdidit ensem (id.), burzed the sword in his side [in latere]. 
 solstitium pecori defendite (Ecl. vii. 47), keep the noontide from 
the flock [a pecore]. 
Ilere the poets regard the acting as done to the thing affected, for 
greater vividness of expression. 


_ 8. Dative of Possession. The dative is used with esse 
and similar words to denote the Owner: as, 


est mihi liber, J have a book. 


51: 3, 4] DATIVE. 127 


Remark. — The Genitive or a possessive with esse emphasizés 
the possessor; the Dative the fact of possession: as, liber est 
meus, the book is mine (and no one’s else); est mihi liber, J have 
a book (among other things). This is the usual form to denote 
simple possession ; habeo, J have, generally signifying hold, often 
with some secondary meaning: as, 


legionem quam secum habebat (B. G. i. 8), the legion which 
he had with him. , . 
domitas habere libidines (De Or.), to keep the passions under. 
a. Compounds of esse take the dative (excepting abesse and 
posse; for other compounds, see above, 2, d). 


_ 6. After nomen est, and similar expressions, the name is usu- 
ally put in the dative by a kind of apposition with the person: as, 


puero ab inopia Egerio inditum nomen (Liv. i. 34), ¢he doy 
was called Egerius from his poverty. 

cui Africano fuit cognomen (Liv. xxv. 2), whose surname was 
Africanus. 


But the name may be in apposition with nomen; or in the genitive 
‘(§ 50, 1,f) > as, 
cui nomen Arethusa (Verr. iv. 52), [a fount] called Arethusa. 
nomen Mercuri est mihi (Plaut. Am.), my zame ts Mercury. 
4. Dative of Agency. The dative is used, after some 
passive forms, to denote the agent: viz. 


a. Regularly with the Gerund or Gerundive, to denote the 


person on whom the necessity rests: as, 
hzc vobis provincia est defendenda (Man. 6), ¢his province is 
Jor you to defend [to be defended by you}. 
mihi est pugnandum, J have to fight [i.e., the need of fighting 
is mine; compare mzhi est liber]. 


6. The dative is often used after perfect participles, especially 


when used in an adjective sense, — rarely after other parts of the ; 


verb: as, 


mihi deliberatum et constitutum est (Rull. i. 8), 7 Aave deliber- 
ated and resolved. 

oratori omnia quesita esse debent (De Or. iii. 14), ax orator 
should search everything. 

acceptus mihi, acceptable to me. 


c. By the poets and later writers it is used in this way after 
almost any passive verb: as, “s 
neque cernitur ulli (/£n. i. 440), and is seen by none. 


felix est dicta sorori (Fast. ili.), she was called happy by her 
sister. | oe 


Oy. 


128 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [S1: 4, 5, 6. 


Remarx.— The dative is regularly used after the passive of 
video (usually to be rendered seem) : as, 
videtur mihi, ¢¢ seems (or seems good) to me. 


5. Dative of Service. The dative is used to denote 
the purpose or end; often with another dative of the person 
or thing affected: as, 


reipublice cladi sunt (Jug. 85), ¢hey are ruin to the State. 

rati sese dis immortalibus cure esse (id. 75), thinking them- 
selves to be the special care of the gods. 

magno usui nostris fuit (B. G. iv. 25), 2 was of great service 
to our men. 

tertiam aciem nostris subsidio misit (id.), he sent the third line 
as a reltef to our men. 

omnia deerant que ad reficiendas naves erant usui (id. 29), a/Z 
things were wanting which were of use for repairing the ships. 


Remark. — In this use the dative is nearly equivalent to a noun 
in apposition with the subject or object of the verb. It is common 
with the words cordi, a delight (lit. to the heart); dono, a gift; 
emolumento, a gain; usui, an advantage; vitio, a fault. The 
indeclinable adjective frugi is properly a dative of service. 


6. Dative of Nearness, &c. The dative is used after 
Adjectives and Adverbs, to denote that to which the given 
quality is directed, or for which it exists. 


Such are especially words of fitness, nearness, likeness, service, 
inclination, and their opposites: as, 


nihil est tam nature aptum (Lel. 5), xzothing is so fitted to 
nature. 

carus omnibus exspectatusque venies (F. xvi. 7), you will come 
loved and longed for by all. 

locum divine nature eternitatique contrarium (Cat. M. 21), 
a point opposed to the divine nature and eternity. 

pee difficile amanti puto (Or. 10), / ¢hink nothing hard toa 
over. 

ar quar pugne aptius (id. 13), fitter for a procession than 
a battle. 

consentaneum tempori et persone (id. 22), adapted to the time 
and the party. 

rebus ipsis par et zqualis oratio (id. 36), @ speech egual and 
level with the subject. 


Also, in poetic and colloquial use, idem, the same: as, 
in eadem arma nobis (Cic.), zo the same arms with us. 


a. Adjectives of Usefulness or Fitness take oftener the accusa- 
tive with ad, but sometimes the dative: as, 


51:6,7-] | DATIVE. 129 


aptus ad rem militarem, 7 for a soldier's duty. 

locus ad insidias aptior (Mil. 20), a place fitter for lying-in- 

ad amicitiam idoneus (Lel. 17), apt to friendship. | wade. 

castris idoneum locum deligit (B. G. vi. 10), he selects a suit- 
able camping-ground. 


b. Adjectives and nouns of inclination may take the accusative 
with in or erga: as, 
comis in uxorem (Hor. Ep. ii. 2), Aénd to his wife. 


divina bonitas erga homines (N.D. ii. 23), ¢he divine goodness 
towards men. 


ec. The following may take also the possessive genitive: — 
aequalis, affinis, amicus, cognatus, communis, consanguin- 
eus, dispar, familiaris, inimicus, necessarius, par, peculiaris, 
proprius, superstes (see p. 118). 

Remark. — After similis, like, with early writers, the genitive 


is more usual ; Cicero uses the genitive of persons, and the genitive 
or dative of things. 


d. The following take the accusative: —propior, proximus 
(sometimes), propius, proxime (more commonly) —as if preposi- 
tions, like prope. 


é€. Verbal nouns take (rarely) the dative, like the verbs from 
which they are derived: as, : 


invidia consuli (Sall.), 2/-w7ll against the consul. 
ministri sceleribus (Tac.), servants of crime. 
obtemperatio legibus (Leg. i. 15), obedience to the laws. 
sibi ipsi responsio (De Or. ili. 54), az answer to himself. 


7. Dative of Reference. The dative is often required 
not by any particular word, but by the general meaning of the 
sentence (dativus commodi et incommodi). 


Nore.—JIn these cases there may be only one word in the sen- 
tence; but they are distinguished by the fact that the meaning of the 
verb is complete without the dative, while in the preceding cases it is 
required to complete the sense of some particular word. 


tibi aras (Pl. Merc. i. 1), you plough for yourself. 

non solum nobis divites esse volumus sed liberis (Off. iii. 15), 
it is not for ourselves alone but for our children that we * 
would be rich. 

res tuas tibi habe (formula of divorce), keep your goods. 

laudavit mihi fratrem, se praised my brother [out of regard for 
me; Jaudavit fratrem meum would imply no such motive]. 


6* 


130 _ CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [Si: 7. 


a. The dative of reference is often used instead of the posses- 
Sive genitive to qualify the whole idea rather than a single word : 


iter Poenis vel corporibus suis obstruere (Cat. M. 20), Zo block 
the march of the Carthaginians even with thetr bodies. 

se in conspectum nautis dedit (Verr. vi. 33), he put himself in 
sight of the sailors. 

versatur mihi ante oculos (id. 47), z¢ comes before my eyes. 


3 b. The dative of reference is used in relations of direction, 
answering to the English as you go in (on the right, in the front, 
&c.): as, 


oppidum primum Thessaliz venientibus ab Epiro (B. C. iii. 
80), the first town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus. 

leva parte sinum intrantibus (Liv. xxxvi. 26), on the left as 
you sail up the gulf. 


c. The dative of reference is used, rarely (by a Greek idiom), 
with the participle of volo or nolo, and similar words: as, 


ut quibusque bellum invitis aut volentibus erat (Tac. Ann. i. 59), 
as they might receive the war reluctantly or gladly. 

ut militibus labos volentibus esset (Jug. 100), thai the soldiers 
might assume the task willingly. 


d. Ethical Dative. The dative of the personal pronouns is 
used to show a certain interest felt by the person referred to 
(dativus ethicus: compare ‘‘Tll rhyme you so eight years to- 
gether.”— As you Like it.): as, 


quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor.), pray what ts Celsus doing ? 

at tibi repente venit mihi Cominius (F. ix. 2), dut, look you, 
of a sudden comes to me Cominius. 

hem tibi talentum argenti (Pl. Trin. v. 1), hark ye, a talent 
of silver. 

quid tibi vis? what would you have? 

avaritia senilis quid sibi velit non intelligo (Cat. M. 18), Z do 
not understand what an old man’s avarice means. 7 


Remark.— To express FoR— meaning instead of, in defence 
of, in behalf of —the ablative with pro must be used, not the 
dative: as, 


pro patria mori (Hor. Od. iii. 2), to die for one’s country. 

pro rege, lege, grege (prov.), for king, law, people. 

ego ibo pro te (Pl. Most.), 2 will go instead of you. 

non pro me sed contra me (De Or. iii. 20), zot for me but 
against me. 


S52: 1.] ACCUSATIVE. 131 


‘ 52. ACOUSATIVE. 


The Accusative denotes that which is immediately 
affected by the action of a verb (Direct Object). 


I. General Use. The Accusative is the case of the 
direct object of a transitive verb: as, 


legationem suscepit, he undertook the embassy. 
Caesar vicit Pompeium, Cesar conquered Pompey. 


Remark. — The Object of a transitive verb in the active voice 
becomes its Subject in the Passive, and is put in the nomi- 
native: as, 


legatio suscipitur, he embassy ts undertaken. 
Pompeius a Cesare victus est, Pompey was overcome by Cesar. 


a. Many verbs which express Feeling, apparently intransitive, 
may take an accusative in Latin: as, 

fidem supplicis erubuit (Virg.), he respected [blushed at] the- 
faith of a suppliant. 

flebat mortuos vivosque, he weft the dead and living. 

meum casum luctumque doluerunt (Sest.69), ¢hkey grieved [at] 
my calamity and sorrow. 

horreo conscientiam (Fin. i. 16), Z shudder at conscience. 


Such verbs may accordingly be used in the passive: as, 


ridetur ab omni conventu (Hor.), he zs laughed [at] by the 
whole assembly. 
b. Cognate Accusative. A neuter verb often takes an ac- 
cusative of kindred meaning, almost always modified by an adjec- 
tive, or in some other manner (Accusative of Effect): as, 


vivere eam vitam (Cic.), fo live that kind of life. 

ztatem tertiam vivebat, ke was living his third age. 
Similarly, in such phrases as vincere judicium, to gain one’s 
case at court, and in poetic use: as, 


saltare Cyclopa (Hor. Sat. v. 1), to dance the Cyclops. 
Bacchanalia vivere (Juv. ii. 2), ¢o deve in revels. 


c- Verbs of taste, smell, &c., take an accusative of the qual- 
ity: as, 


vinum redolens (Cic.), smelling of wine. 
herbam mella sapiunt (Plin.), the honey tastes of grass. 


132 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [52: 1, 2. 


d. Verbs of motion, and a few others, compounded with prep- 
ositions, especially compounds of circum and trans, frequently 
become transitive, and take the accusative: as, 


mortem obire, zo de. ! 

consulatum ineunt (Livy iii. 6), ‘hey assume the consulship. 

neminem conveni (Fam. ix. 14), / met no one. i 

tectum subire, fo exter [go under] @ place of shelter. 

colloquium haud abnuit (Livy xxx. 29), he did not refuse the 

interview. : 

si insulam adisset (B. G. iv. 20), if ke should go to the island. 

cives qui circumstant senatum (Cat. i. 8), the citizens who 

throng about the senate. 

e. Constructio Praegnans. The accusative is used in certain 
phrases constructively, the real object of the verb being something 
understood: as, 

coire societatem, Zo [go together and] form an alliance. __ 

ferire foedus, ¢o strike a treaty [i.e. to sanction by striking 

down the victim]. 

mare navigare, Zo sail the sea [i.e. to sail a ship upon the sea]. 

f. The accusative is used after the Impersonals decet, it be- 
comes ; delectat, juvat, it delights; oportet, it behooves ; fallit, 
it deceives ; fugit, praeterit, it escapes: as, 

te non preteriit (Fam. i. 8), 7¢ has not escaped your notice. 


(For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see § 50, 4, ¢.) 
2. Two Accusatives. Several classes of verbs, besides 
{ the direct object, take another accusative, either in apposition 


‘or as a secondary object. 


choosing, &c. (See § 46.) 


i a. The accusative is used in apposition after verbs of naming, 
b. A second accusative is sometimes used after transitive verbs 


Fi compounded with prepositions: as, 


Hiberum copias trajecit (Liv. xxi. 23), ke threw his forces 
across the Ebro. 


But with these verbs the preposition is oftener repeated. 


c- Verbs of asking and teaching govern two accusatives, either 
of which may be regarded as the direct object of the action: as, 


hoc vos doceo (Cic.), Z teach you this. 
hoc te vehementer rogo (id.), ¢his J urgently beg of you. 


Remark. — The accusative of the Thing may remain with the 
passive of verbs of teaching, also rogo. But generally with verbs 
of asking, the Thing becomes subject-nom., while the Person 
asked is put in the ablative with a preposition. The preposition is 


52:.°3, 4.) | ACCUSATIVE. 133 


always used, to denote the person after peto, postulo (ab), 
quaero (ex or de): as, 


pacem ab Romanis petere (Czs.), fo beg peace of the Romans. 
d. The transitive celo, conceal, and the usually neuter lateo, 
lie hid, take the accusative of the person: as, 
hoc me celavit, ke hid this from me. 
latet plerosque (Plin.), z¢ zs hid from most. 
3. Adverbial Accusative. The accusative is used ad- 
verbially, or for specification. This is found — 
a. With many verbs usually intransitive, which take a neuter 
pronoun or adjective in the accusative: as, 


quid moror, why do J delay ? 

pauca milites hortatus (Sall.), having briefly exhorted the men. 
duloe loquentem (Hor. Od. i. 22), sweetly speaking. 

acerba tuens (/En. ix. 793), looking cruelly. 

torvum clamat (id. vii. 599), 4e cries harshly. 

idem gloriari, Zo doast the same thing. 


Nore. — Many of these are cognate accusatives. 

6. In a few adverbial phrases, such as id temporis, at that 
time; meam vicem, on my part; quod si, but (as to which) if. 

c- In the so-called synecdochical or Greek accusative, used by 
the poets to denote the part affected: as, 

caput nectentur (Virg.), thetr head shall be bound [they shall 

be bound about the head]. 

The part.is strictly in apposition with the whole, and remains (as 
above) after the passive. 

REmarRK. — The accusative after passive verbs used reflexively 
is sometimes wrongly referred to this construction: as, 

inutile ferrum cingitur (Virg.), ze girds on the useless steel. 


4. Special Uses. Peculiar uses are the following : — 


a. The accusative is used in Exclamations: as, 


O fortunatam rempublicam (Cic.), O fortunate republic! 
O me miserum! Ak wretched me! 


6. The subject of the Infinitive Mood is in the accusative. ~ 
This is especially frequent after words of knowing, thinking, and 
telling (verba sentiendi et declarandi, § 67, 1. In its origin, 
the accusative is strictly the Object of the leading verb). 


c- Time how long, and Distance how far, are in the accusative. 
(See § 55.) 
For the Accusative with Prepositions, see § 56. 


134 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [53; 54, 


53. VoOcATIVE. 


The Vocative is the form of direct Address: as, 


Tiberine pater, te sancte precor (Liv. ii. 103), O futher Tiber! 
thee, holy one, I pray. 


Nore. — The Vocative can hardly be called a case, as it properly 
has no case termination, and forms no part of the sentence. 


a. Sometimes the nominative of a noun is used instead of the 
vocative, in apposition with the subject of the Imperative: as, 


audi tu, populus Albanus (id. i. 24), hear, thou people of Alba. 


b. Sometimes the vocative of an adjective is used instead of the 
nominative, where the verb is of the second person: as, 


censorem trabeate salutas (Pers.), robed you salute the censor. 


So in the phrase, 


macte [= magne, root MAG] virtute esto (Hor.), de exlarged 
in manliness | bravo, well done]. 


54, ABLATIVE. 


The Ablative is used to denote the relations ex- 
pressed in English by the prepositions from, in, 
at, with, by. 


Notr.— The Ablative form contains three distinct cases, —the 
ablative proper, expressing the relation From; the locative, in; and 
the instrumental, witH or By. This confusion has arisen partly 

' from phonetic decay, by which the cases have become identical in 
form, and partly from the development by which they have ap- 
_ proached one another in meaning. Compare, for the first, the like 
_ forms of the dative and ablative plural, the old dative in e of the fifth 
declension, and the loss of the original d in the ablative ; and, for the 
second, the phrases a parte dextra, on the right; quam ob causam, 
FROM which cause; ad famam, at (in consequence of) the report. 


The relation of From includes separation, source, cause, agent, and 
comparison; that of 1N or At, place, time, circumstance; that of WITH or 
BY, accompaniment, instrument, means, manner, quality, and price. It is 
probable that, originally, the idea of accompaniment had a separate case, 
which became confounded with the ixstrumental before the Latin was 
senarated from the kindred tongues. 





4: b) ABLATIVE. 135 


1. Ablative of Separation. Verbs meaning to remove, 
set free, be absent, deprive, and want, are followed by the 
ablative: as, 


levamur superstitione, liberamur mortis metu (Fin. i. 19), we 
are relieved from superstition, freed from fear of death. 

oculis se privavit (id. v. 29), ke deprived himself of eyes. 

consilio et auctoritate orbari (Cat. M. 6), zo de bereft of counsel 
and authority. 

legibus solutus, relieved from the obligation of laws. . 

ea philosophia quz spoliat nos judicio, privat approbatione, 
omnibus orbat sensibus (Acad. ii. 19), that philosophy which 
despoils us of judgment, deprives of approval, bereaves of 
every sense. 

omni Gallia interdicit Romanos (B. G. i. 46), e [Ariovistus | 
bars the Romans from the whole of Gaul. 

ei aqua et igni interdicitur (Vell. Pat. ii. 45), ke ts debarred 
the use of fire and water. 

[cives] calamitate prohibere (Manil. 7), to keep the citizens 
Srom ruin. 

carere febri (Fam. xvi. 16), to be free from fever. 

voluptatibus carere (Cat. M. 3), Zo lack enjoyments. 

non egeo medicina (Lel. 3), £ want no physic. 

magno me metu liberabis (Cat. i. 5), you will relieve me of 
great fear. 

Ephorus calcaribus eget (Quint.), Ephorus needs the spur. 


a. Compounds of a, ab, de, ex, take the ablative when used 
figuratively ; but in their literal meaning, implying motion, they 
usually follow the rules of place from which (see § 55, 3): as, 


conatu desistere (B. G. i. 8), to desist from the attempt. 

exsolvere se occupationibus (Fam. vii. 1), to get clear of occu- 
pation. 

prius quam ea cura decederet patribus (Liv. ix. 29), before that 
anxiety left the fathers. 

desine communibus locis (Ac. ii. 25), guzt commonplaces. 

abire magistratu, Zo leave the office. 

abscedere incepto, fo relinguish the undertaking. 

abstinere injuria, fo refrain from wrong. 

exire ere alieno, fo get out of debt. 


b. More rarely, the ablative is used after verbs without a prep- 
dsition to denote the place from which: as, 


cessisset patria (Mil. 25), he would have left his country. 
loco movere (Liv. i. 35), to move from tts place. 

patria pellere, fo drive out of the country. 

Gallia arcere (Phil. v. 13), to keep out of Gaul. 

manu mittere, Zo emancipate [let go from the hand]. 


136 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: 1, 2. 


/\  @« Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by the 
‘ ™ ablative : as, 


liber cura et angore (Fin. i. 15), free from care and anguish. 
vacuos curis (ib. ii. 14), vod of care. 

urbs nuda presidio (Att. vii. 13), the city naked of defence. 
immunis militia (Liv. i. 43), free of military service. 

plebs orba tribunis (Leg. iii. 3), the Beople deprived of tribunes. 


d. Opus and usus signifying need (with esse) are followed 
by the ablative (often by the ablative of the perfect participle, with 
or without a noun): as, 


magistratibus opus est (Leg. iii.2), ¢here 7s need of magistrates. 

curatore usus est (id. 4,— chiefly ante-classical), there is need 
of a manager. 

properato opus esset (Mil. 19), ¢here were need of haste. 

ut opu’st facto (Ter. Heaut.), as there is need to do. 


RemMarK. — The nominative is often used with opus in the 
predicate: as, 


os 


multi opus sunt boves (Varro R.R.i.18), there 7s need of many 
cattle. 

dux nobis et auctor opus est (Fam. ii. 6), we need a chief and 
adviser. 


e. Egeo and indigeo are often followed by the genitive: as, 


ne quis auxili egeat (B.G. vi. 11), dest any require aid. 

quz ad consolandum majoris ingeni et ad ferendum singularis 
virtutis indigent (Fam. vi. 4), [sorrows] which for comfort 
need more ability, and for endurance unusual courage. 


Remark. — With all words of separation and want, the poets 
frequently, by a Greek idiom, use the genitive (see § 50, 4, e): as, 


desine mollium tandem querelarum (Hor. Od. ii. 9), cease at 
length from weak complaints. 

abstineto irarum (id. iii. 27), abstain from wrath. 

operum solutis (id. 17), free from toils. 


2. Ablative of Source. The ablative is used to denote 
the source from which anything is derived, or the material 
of which it consists. 


\ a. Participles denoting birth or origin are followed by the 
. ablative. Such participles are natus, satus, editus, genitus, 
£ ortus: as, 
Jove natus et Maia (N. D. iii. 22), son of Fupiter and Maza. 
ortus equestri loco (Leg. Agr. i. 9), born of equestrian rank. 


edite regibus (Hor. Od. i. 1), descendant of kings. 
quo sanguine cretus (En. ii. 74), born of what blood. 


54: 2, 3.] ABLATIVE. 137 


Remark. — A spesiosizon (ab, de, ex) is usually expressed 
with the name of the mother, and with that of distant ancestors. 


b. Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative: as, 


desideravit C. Felginatem Placentié, A. Graninm Puteolis 
(B. C. iii. 71), he lost C. F. of Placentia, A. G. of Puteoli. 


ce. The ablative is used with constare and similar verbs, to 
denote material (but with other verbs a preposition is generally 
used, except by the poets): as, 


animo constamus et corpore (Fin. iv. 8), we consist of soul and 
body. 


Notre.— The ablative with consistere and contineri is lJocative 
(see below, 10). 


dad. The ablative of material is used with facere, fieri, and 
similar words: as, 


quid hoc homine facias (Verr. ii. 16), What are you going to 
do with this man? | Or, de hoc homine.] 

quid Tulliola mea fiet (Fam. xiv. 4), what will become of my 
dear Tullia ? 

quid te futurum est (Verr. ii. 64), what will happen to you ? 


3. Ablative of Cause. The ablative (with or without a 
preposition) is used to express the cause. 


~ 


Nore. — The cause, in the Ablative, is considered as source, as is 
shown by the use of ab, de, ex; while with ad, ob, the idea of cause 
arises from nearness. But occasionally it is difficult to distinguish be- 
tween cause and means (which is instrumental) or circumstance (either 
locative or instrumental). 


_nimio gaudio pzne desipiebam (Fam. i. 13), 7 was almost a 
fool with excess of joy. 
negligentia plectimur (Lel. 22), we are chastised for negligence. 
cecus avaritia (Liv. v. 51), dlind with avarice. ; 
gubernatoris ars utilitate non arte laudatur (Fam. i. 13), ¢ke 
pilot's skill is praised as service not as skill. 


a. The ablative is used with the adjectives dignus, indignus, 
and with the verbs dignor, laboro (also with ex), exsilio, 
exsulto, triumpho, lacrimo, ardeo. 


vir patre, avo, majoribus suis dignissimus (Phil. iii. 10), @ maz 
most worthy of his father, grandfather, and ancestors. 

doleo te aliis malis laborare (Fam. iv. 3), J am sorry that you 
suffer with other ills. 

ex zre alieno laborare (B. C. iii. 22), to labor under debt. 

exsultare letitid ac triumphare gaudio ccepit (Clu. 5), she 
began to exult in gladness, and triumph in oy. 


138 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: 3, 4, 5. 


b. The motive which influences the mind of the person acting 
is expressed by the ablative alone ; the object exciting the emotion 
often by ob or propter with the accusative: as, 

non ob predam aut spoliandi cupidine (Tac. H. i. 63), sot for 

booty or through lust of plunder. 

c. The ablatives causa and gratia, for the sake of, are used 
with a genitive preceding, or with a possessive in agreement: as, 

eA causA, on account of this; med causa, for my sake. 

et ipsorum et reipublice causa (Manil. 2), for their own sake 


and the republic’s. 
sui purgandi gratia, for the sake of clearing themselves. 


With possessives the use of gratia in this sense is rare. 


4. Ablative of Agent. The voluntary agent after a pas- 
sive verb is put in the ablative with ab (see § 56, 4): as, 
laudatur ab his, culpatur ab illis (Hor. Sat. i. 2), he ts raised 
by these, blamed by those. 
ab animo tuo quidquid agitur id agitur a te (Tusc.i. 22), what- 
ever ts done by your soul is done by yourself. 
a. This construction is sometimes used after neuter verbs hav- 
ing a passive sense: as, - 
perire ab hoste, zo de slain by an enemy. 


b. The agent, considered as instrument or means, is expressed 
by per with the accusative, or by opera with a genitive or posses- 
Sive: as, | 

per Antiochum (Liv.), dy means of Antiochus. 
mea vpera (Cic.), dy my means. 


So per vim, as well as vi (B. G. i. 14), by force. 


5. Ablative of Comparison. The Comparative degree 
is followed by the ablative (signifying THAN): as, 


quis me beatior (Tusc. i. 4), who more blest than I? 
quid nobis duobus laboriosius est (Mil. 2), what more burdened 
than we tuo? 


| Note.— Here the object of comparison is the starting-point from 
| which we reckon, as itself possessing the quality in some degree. That 
_ this is the true explanation is shown by the ablative in Sanskrit, and 
the genitive in Greek. 
a. Quam with the same case as the adjective may also be used, 
and must regularly be used when the adjective is not either nomi- 
native or accusative. But the puets sometimes use the ablative 


even then: as, 


“ 
S 


x 


% 
} 

; 
SN 
\ 


54: 5, 6.] ABLATIVE. 139 


pane egeo jam mellitis potiore placentis (Hor. Ep. i. 10), Zwant 
bread better than honey-cakes. 


ReMarK. — Quam is never used in this construction with rela- 
tive pronouns having a definite antecedent. 


b. Particularly the idiomatic ablatives opinione, spe, solito, 
dicto, aequo, credibili, and justo, are used instead of a clause: as, 


celerius opinione (Fam. iv. 23), faster than one would think. 
amnis solito citatior (Liv. xxii. 19), @ stream swifter than its 
wont. 


¢- Plus, minus, amplius, longius, are often used with words 
of measure or number without affecting their case (being in a kind 
of apposition) : as, 


plus septingenti capti (Liv. xli. 12), move than 700 were taken. 

plus tertia parte interfecta (Cxs.), more than a third part being 

slain. 

spatium non amplius sexcentorum pedum (id.), @ space of not 

more than 600 feet. 

Nore. — Alius is used by the poets with the ablative, perhaps in 
imitation of the Greek ; but the construction is found also in Sanskrit, 
and is probably original: as, alium sapienti bonoque (Hor. Ep. i. 16). 
Under comparatives belong the adverbs antea, antidea, postilla, 
postea, preeterea, earlier than this, &c. (see § 56, 3). 


[For Ablative of Difference, see below, 6, e.] 


6. Ablative of Means. The ablative is used to denote 
accompaniment, means, or instrument: as, 


vultu Milonis perterritus (Mil. 15), scared by the face of Milo. 

animum appellat novo nomine (Tusc. i. 10), he calls the mind 
by a new name. 

probabilia conjectura sequens (id. 9), following probabilities 
by conjecture. 

excultus doctrina (id. 2), thoroughly trained in learning. 

fidibus canere (id.), ¢o sing to the lyre. 

Fauno immolare agna (Hor. Od. i. 4), Zo sacrifice to Faunus 
with a ewe-lamb. 

pol pudere quam pigere przstat totidem literis (Plaut. Trin. 
345), dy Pollux better shame than blame, although the letters 
count the same (lit. with as many letters]. 


a- The ablative of accompaniment regularly takes cum (except 
sometimes in military phrases, and a few isolated expressions, 
especially in the early writers): as, 


cum funditoribus sagittariisque flumen transgressi (B. G. ii. 
19), having crossed the river with the slingers and archers. 
subsequebatur omnibus copiis (ib.), Ze followed close with all 

his forces. [out. 
hoc presidio profectus est (Verr. ii. 34), wth this convoy he sit 


140 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: 6. 


RemarK.— Misceo and jungo, with their compounds, may 
take the ablative of accompaniment, without cum, or sometimes 
the dative. 


b. Words of contention require cum (but often take the dative 
in poetry): as, 
armis cum hoste certare (Cic.), to fight with the enemy tn arms. 


est mihi tecum certamen (id.), 7 Aave a controversy with you. 
solus tibicertat Amyntas (Ecl. v.8), Amyntas alone vies with you. 


c- The ablative of means is used with words of filling, abound- 
ing, and the like: as, 


Deus bonis omnibus explevit mundum (Univ. 3), God has filled 
the world with all good things. 

dialecticis imbutus (‘Tusc. i. 7), ¢énuctured with logic. 

circumfusi caligine (id. 19), overspread with darkuess. 

opimus preda (Verr. i. 50), rich with spoil. 

vita plena et conferta voluptatibus (Sext. 10), @ life full and 
crowded with delights. 

Forum Appi differtum nautis (Hor. Sat. i. 5), Forum Appi 


crammed with bargemen. 


Remark. — These verbs and adjectives take the genitive in the 
poets by a Greek idiom: as, 


terra scatet ferarum (Lucr. v. 41), the land abounds in wild 
creatures. 


explere ultricis flammez (/En. ii. 586), fll with avenging flame. 
Compleo, impleo, and plenus, often take the genitive in prose. 


_  @. The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, with 
sg of their compounds, govern the ablative: as, 
cs utar vestra benignitate (Cic.), Z will avail myself of your 
kindness. 
Numide plerumque lacte et feriné carne vescebantur (Jug. 88), 
the Numidians fed mostly on milk and game. 


Potior also takes the genitive, as always in the phrase potiri 
rerum, to get the power. In early Latin, the accusative is 
sometimes found with these verbs. 


e. The ablative is used with comparatives and words implying 
comparison, to denote the degree of difference: as, 


duobus milibus plures, more numerous by 2000. 
quinque milibus passuum distat (Liv.), z¢ 7s five milse distant. 


Remark, — This use is especially frequent with the ablatives 
€o0...quo; quanto... tanto (see § 22, ¢): as, 


quo minus cupiditatis eo plus auctoritatis (Liv. xxiv. 28), he 
less greed the more weight. 


54: 7, 8.] | ABLATIVE. 141 


% Ablative of Quality. ‘The ablative is used, with an 
adjective or limiting genitive, to denote manner and quality: as, 

animo meliore, of better mind. 

more hominum, after the manner of men. 

non quero quanta memoria fuisse dicatur (Tusce. i. 24), Z do 

not ask how great a memory he ts said to have had. 

a. The ablative of description (with adjectives) is always used 
to denote physical characteristics (other qualities may be in the 
genitive, § 50, 1, g) : as, 

vultu sereno, of calm face. 

capillo sunt promisso (B.G., v. 14), they have long hanging locks. 

b. The ablative of manner more commonly takes cum, unless it 
has a modifying adjective: as, 

minus cum cura (Plaut.), less carefully. 

hoc onus feram studio et industria (Rosc. Am. 4), Z will bear 

this burden with pains and diligence. 
But words of manner, modo, ratione, via, &c.—with such ex- 
pressions as silentio, in silence, injuria, wrongfully — hardly ever 
have cum. Verbs of exchanging may take cum. 


8. Ablative of Price. The price of a thing (or that 
which is given in exchange) is put in the ablative: as, 

agrum vendidit sestertiim sex milibus, he sold the field for 

6000 sesterces. 

exsilium patria sede mutavit (Q.C. iii. 8), he exchanged his 

native land for exile. 

a. Certain genitives of Quantity are used to denote indefinite 
value. Such genitives are magni, parvi, tanti, quanti, pluris, 
minoris: as, 

est mihi tanti (Cat. ii. 7), z¢ 7s worth my while. 
mea magni interest, zt zs of great consequence to me. 


Remark. — With verbs of buying and selling, the ablative of 
price (magno, &c.) must be used, except the oeede genitives : 
tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris. 


6. The genitive of certain nouns is used in the same way: as, 
non flocci faciunt (Pl. Trin.), they care not a straw. 


The genitives so used are nihili, nothing ; assis, a farthing; 
flocci, a lock of wool, and a few others (see § 50, 1, 7). 


[For the Ablative of Penalty, see § 50, 4, b, Rem.] 


142 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: 9, Io. 


_| 9% Ablative of Specification. The ablative denotes 
f that in respect to which anything is said to be or be done, or 
C in accordance with which anything happens: as, 


virtute precedunt (B. G. i. 1), they excel tu courage. 

incluta bello moenia (En. ii. 24), walls famous in war. 

claudus altero pede (Nep. Ages.), lame of one foot. 

lingua hesitantes, voce absoni (DeOr. i.), hesetating in speech, 
harsh in voice. 

tanta caritas patriz est, ut eam non sensu nostro sed salute 
ipsius metiamur (Tusc. i. 37), such zs our love of country, that 
we measure it not by our own feeling, but by her own welfare. 


10. Locative Ablative. The ablative: of the place 
where is retained in many idiomatic expressions: as, 


jure peritus, skilled in law [compare Sanskrit usages]. 

pendemus animis (Tusc. i. 40), we are in suspense of mind. 

socius periculis vobiscum adero (Jug. 85), JZ wll be present 
with you a companion in dangers. 

premit altum corde dolorem (in. i. 209), ke keeps down the 
pain deep in his heart. 

conferté legione (B. G. iv. 33), as they were in close order. 

pedibus preeliantur (id. 34), they fight on foot. 

quibus rebus (id. 35), wader these circumstances. 


a. The verbs acquiesco, delector, laetor, gaudeo, glorior, 
nitor, sto, maneo, fido (confido), consisto, contineor, — with 
the verbals fretus, contentus, laetus,—are followed by the 
ablative (for facio, fio, see 2, d): as, 

spe niti (Att. iii. 9), Zo rely on hope. 


prudentia fidens (Off. i. 33), ¢rusting in prudence. 
letari bonis rebus (Lel. 13), Zo rejoice in good things. 


Remark. — The above verbs also take the preposition in. 


6. Ablative Absolute. A noun or pronoun, with a parti- 
ciple, is put in the ablative, to define the time or circumstances of 
an action (compare § 72). An adjective, or another noun, may 
take the place of the participle. 


vocatis ad se undique mercatoribus (B. G. iv. 20), Aaving called 
to him the traders from all quarters. 

exigua parte statis reliqua (id.), when but a small part of the 
summer was left. 

M. Messala et M. Pisone consulibus (id. i. 2), zz the consulship 
of Messala and Piso. 


Nore. — In this use the noun is équivalent to the Subject, and the 
participle to the Predicate, of a subordinate clause ; and so they should 


54: 10; 55.] TIME AND PLACE. 143 


generally be translated. But, as the copula esse has no participle in 
Latin, a noun or adjective is often found alone as predicate, while the 
participle is found, in this construction, in Sanskrit and Greek. The 
noun originally denotes circumstance, considered as place or time (loca- 
tive); then, being modified by a participle, it becomes fused with it 
into a single idea, equivalent to that contained in a subordinate clause 
(compare ab urbe condita, lit. from the city built). 


ec. Sometimes a participle or adjective (under the construction 
of the ablative absolute) is put in agreement with a phrase or 
clause, or is used adverbially : as, 


incerto quid peterent, szuce ¢¢t was uncertain what they sought. 

auspicato (Tac. H.i. 84), after taking the auspices | the auspices 
having been taken]. 

consulto et cogitato (Off i. 8), on purpose and with reflection 
[the matter having been deliberated and thought on]. 

sereno (Liv. xxxi. 12), wader a clear sky. 


d. The ablative is often used to denote the place where, or the 
time when (see § 55, 1; 3, f). 


[For the government of the Ablative by Prepositions, see § 56.] 


55. Tre AND PLACE. 


1. Time. Time when (or within which) is put in the 
Ablative; time how long in the Accusative: as, 


constituta die, on” the set day. 

quota hora? at what o'clock ? 

tribus proxumis annis (Jug. 11), wthinu the last three years. 

dies continuos triginta, for a month together. 

paucis post diebus (or paucos post dies), after a few days. 
[Here diebus is the ablative of d7ference (§ 54, 6, e), and 
post an adverb (§ 56, 2, dZ).] 


Nore. — The ablative of time is locative ; the accusative is the same 
as that of extent of spuce (see below, 3, d). 


a. The use of a preposition gives greater precision and clear- 
ness: as, 


in diebus proximis decem (Sall.), within the next ten days. 
ludi per decem dies (Cat. iii. 8), games lasting ten days. 
b. The ablative is rarely used to express duration of time: as, 


milites quinque horis preelium sustinuerant (B. C. i. 47), the 
men had sustained the fight five hours. [This use is locative.] 


ae 
i 


4S 


& 


{ 


144 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [55: 2, 3. 


2. Space. Extent of space is put in the Accusative: as, 


fossas quindecim pedes latas (B.G. vil. 72), trenches 15 feet 
broad. 


Norse. — This accusative is the object through or over which the 
action takes place, and is kindred with the accusative of the end of 
motion. 

a. Measure is often expressed as a quality by the Genitive 
(§ 50, 1, A): as, , 

vallo pedum duodecim (B.G. ii. 30), a @ rampart of 12 feel 

[in height]. 

b. Distance is put in the Accusative (as extent of space), or 
Ablative (as degree of difference): as, 

quinque dierum iter abest (Liv. xxx. 29), #¢ és distant five days’ 

march. 

triginta milibus passuum infra eum locum (B. G. vi. 35), ¢hirty 

miles below that place. 

tanto spatio secuti (B. G. iv. 35), Aaving followed over so much 

ground. 

3. Place. To express relations of Place, prepositions 
are necessary, except with the names of Towns and small 
‘Islands; except also with domus, rus, and a few other words 

in special relations. 


Nortr. — Originally these relations were expressed with all. words 


_ by the cases alone, —the Accusative denoting the end of motion as in 
a certain sense the object of the action; and the Ablative (in its proper 


meaning of separation) denoting the place from which. For the place 
where there was a special case, the Locative, the form of which was 
partially retained and partially merged in the Ablative (see Note, 


_p. 184). The Shel goat (originally Adverbs) were added to define 
i 


_ more exactly the 


rection of the motion, and by long usage at length 
became necessary, except in the cases given above. 


) a. The name of the place from which is in the Ablative: as, 


t Roma profectus, having set out from Rome. 
rure reversus, having returned from the country. 


} 6. The name of the place to which is in the Accusative: as, 


ev Romam rediit, ke returned to Rome. : 
rus ibo, J shall go into the country. : 
Remark. — The old construction™is retained in the phrases 
exsequias ire, to attend a funeral; infitias ire, to make denial ; 
pessum ire, fo go to ruin; pessum dare, to undo; venum dare 
(vendere), to set to sale; venum ire, fo be set to sale; foras, out 
of doors; and the Supine in um (see § 74, 1). 


55:3, 4.] TIME AND PLACE. 145 


\ ¢€. The name of the place where takes the Locative form, which 
in the first and second declensions singular is the same as the 
genitive ; in the plural, and in the third declension, the same as the 
dative: as, . 

Romae, at Rome ; Corinthi, at Corinth ; Lanuvi, at Lanuvium ; 


Karthagini, at Carthage; Athenis, at Athens; Curibus, 
at Cures. 


Remark. —In names of the third declension the ablative is 
often found, especially where the metre requires it in poetry: as, 


Tibure vel Gabiis (Hor. Ep. ii. 2), at Tibur or Gabi. 


d. The words domi (rarely domui), at home ; belli, militiae 

< (in contrast to domi), abroad in military service; humi, on the 

ground ; ruri, in the country; foris, out-of-doors ; terra marique, 

by land and sea, are used like names of towns, without a prep- 
osition; also heri, vesperi, infelici arbori (Liv.). 


e. A possessive, or alienus, may be used with domus in this 
construction ; but when it is modified in any other way, a preposi- 
tion is generally used: as, 


domi sue (Mil. 7), a¢ his own house. 
in M. Lecze domum (Cat. i. 4), to Leca’s house. 


f. The ablative is used without a preposition to denote the’ 


place where, in many general words—as loco, parte — regu- 
larly; frequently with nouns when qualified by adjectives (reg- 
ularly where totus is used); and in poetry in any case: as, 


quibus loco positis (De Or. iii. 38), when these are put tn their 
places. 

qua parte victi erant (Att. ix. 11), on the side where they were 
beaten. 

se oppido tenet (id.), eeps himself within the town. 

media urbe (Liv. i. 33), 2 the midst of the city. 

tota Sicilia (Verr. iv. 23), throughout Sicily. 

litore curvo (En. iii. 16), on the bending shore. 


Remark.— To denote the neighborhood of a place (to, from, 
in the neighborhood), prepositions must be used. 


4. The way by which is put in the Ablative (of instru- 
ment): as, 


vid breviore equites premisi (Fam. x. 9), J sent forward the 
cavalry by a shorter road. 
ZEgeo mari trajecit (Liv. xxxvii. 14), he crossed by way of the 
Eigean sea. 
7 


146 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [56: 1. 


56. Use or PREPOSITIONS. 


1. Prepositions govern either the Accusative or Ablative. 


a. The following govern the Accusative : —ad, adversus, ad- 
versum, ante, apud, circa, or circum, circiter, cis, citra, con- 
tra, erga, extra, infra, inter, intra, juxta, ob, penes, per, 
pone, post, praeter, prope, propter, secundum, supra, 
trans, ultra, versus. , 


b. The following govern the Ablative: —a, ab, abs, absque, 
coram, cum, de, e, ex, prae, pro, sine, tenus. 

c. In and sub take the Accusative when they denote motion ; 
when rest, the Ablative: as, 


in contionem venit (Off. iii. 11), ke came into the meeting. 
dixit in contione (ib.), he said in the meeting. 

sub jugum mittere (Czs.), to send under the yoke. 

sub monte consedit (id.), he halted below the hill. 


Remark. — The verbs of placing, — such as pono and its com- 
pounds (except impono), loco, statuo, &c., — though implying 
motion, take in Latin the construction of the place in which: as, 

* qui in sede ac domo collocavit (Parad. iii. 2), who put one 
into his place and home. 

d. When it means concerning, super takes the Ablative ; other- 
wise the Accusative (unless in poetry): as, 

hac super re (Cic.), concerning this thing. 
super culmina tecti (Virg.), above the house-top. | 
e. After subter, the Accusative is used, except sometimes in 
poetry: as, 
subter togam (Liv.), uuzder his mantle. 
subter litore (Catull.), delow the shore. 
f. In Dates, the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, 
or the ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposi- 
tion; and the phrase itself may be governed by a preposition: as, 
is dies erat a.d. quintum kalendas Aprilis (B. G. i. 6), that day 
was the 5th hetove the calends of April [March 28]. 

in a.d. v. kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 3), to the 5th day before the calends 
of November (Oct. 28]. 

xv. kal. Sextilis, she 15th day before the calends of August 
(July 18). [Full form, gucuto decimo die ante.} 

g.- Tenus (which follows its noun) regularly takes the Abla- 
tive: as, 

Tauro tenus (Dej. 13), as far as Taurus. 
capulo tenus (En. v. 55), up éo the hilt. 


S63: 3, 2,34; 45] PREPOSITIONS. 147 


Remark. —Tenus is found especially with the feminine of the 
adjective pronouns, in an adverbial sense: as, 


hactenus, dztherto ; quatenus, so far as, &c. 


Sometimes it takes the Genitive: as, 


Corcyre tenus (Liv. xxv. 24), as far as Corcyra. 


2. Many words may be construed either as Prepositions 
or as Adverbs: thus — 

a. The adverbs pridie, postridie, propius, proxime, usque 
— also (less frequently) the adjectives propior and proximus — 
may be followed by the Accusative: as, ‘ 


pridie Nonas Junias (Cic.), tke day before the Nones of Fune 
(June 4). 
postridie ludos (id.), #hke day after the games. 


b. The adverbs palam, procul, simul, may take the Abla- 
tive: as, 3 
palam populo (Liv.), zz the presence of the people. 
c. The adverb clam may take either case (dat. rare): as, 
clam matrem suam (Plaut.), wxbeknown to the mother. 
clam mihi (id.), zz secret from me. 
clam vobis (Ces.), without your knowledge. 

d. Prepositions often retain their original meaning as Adverbs. 
This is especially the case with ante and post, in relations of. 
time; adversus, contra (on the other hand), circiter, prope, and, 
in general, those ending in 4. Clam and versus are often ex- 
cluded from the list of Prepositions. 


[For the use of prepositions in Composition, see § 42, 3.] 


3. Some prepositions or adverbs which imply comparison 
are followed, like comparatives, by quam, —several words, 
or even clauses, sometimes coming between: as, | 


neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit (Liv. xxxix. 10), 
nor did he let him go until he gave a pledge. 

post diem tertium quam dixerat (Man. 16), the third day after 
he said tt. [So octavo mense quam, Liv. xxi. 15.] 


Such words are ante, prius, post, pridie, postridie. 


4. The ablative, with a or ab, is regularly used after pas- 
sive verbs to denote the Agent, if a person, or if spoken of as 
a person (§ 54, 4): as, 

jussus a patre, didden by his father. 


148 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [ST +17, Be 


Remark. — The ablative of the agent (which requires the prep- 
osition) must be carefully distinguished from the ablative of 
instrument, which stands by itself: as, 


occisus gladio, slain by a sword; but, 
occisus ab hoste, slain by an enemy. 
5. The following prepositions sometimes follow their noun : — 
ad, citra, circa, contra, inter, penes, propter, ultra, tenus; 
e, de, juxta. 


[For the so-called Dative of the Agent, with the Gerundive, see 
$$ 51, 4,a. For prepositions connecting Nouns, see § 50, 3, R. ] 


‘ 


III. Syntax of the Verb. 


57. Use or Moops. 
(See § 24.) 


The Moons of a Latin Verb are the Indicative, 
Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive. 


Norre.— The Infinitive is not strictly a mood, being only the 
oblique case of a noun; but it is most conveniently treated along with 
the moods. 


1. Indicative. The Indicative is the mood of direct 
assertions or questions ; and is used when no special construc- 
tion requires one of the others. 


2. Subjunctive. The Subjunctive is used in special con- 
structions, both in dependent and independent clauses, viz. : — 


a. Independent Clauses. 1. In independent clauses, the 
subjunctive is used to denote an Exhortation or Command (hor- 
tatory subjunctive); a Wish (optative subjunctive); a Concession 
(concessive subjunctive); or a Doubtful Question (dubitative 
subjunctive). 

2. It is also used to denote the conclusion of a Conditional 
sentence (apodosis), which is, grammatically, an independent 
clause, though logically depending on a condition expressed or 
implied (see §§ 59, 60). 

6. Dependent Clauses. In dependent clauses, the subjunc- 
tive is used to denote a Purpose (§ 64), or a Result (§ 65). It 


r 


SF: 2,3.) USE OF MOODS: SUBJUNCTIVE. 149 


is used, idiomatically, in Temporal Clauses (§ 62), in Indirect 
Discourse (§ 67), in Indirect Questions (id.), and in Intermediate 
Clauses (§ 66) ; also in Conditions future or contrary to fact. 


[For Subjunctive after Particles of Comparison, see § 61.] 
[For the so-called Subjunctive of Cause, see § 63.] 


Notr.— The Present Subjunctive contains two distinct forms, — 
the Subjunctive and Optative of the “ Indo-European” tongue. Both 
these forms had originally a future meaning; and from these future 
meanings all the uses of this mood in Latin are developed. The 
subjunctive proper was originally a Present, denoting continued action, 
which became Future in sense (compare conative present and present. 
for future, § 58, 2, b); and afterwards, in many uses, Imperative (com-. 
pare future for imperative). The optative contains, in composition, a 
past tense of the root 1 (whence eo, eit, go); so that it had a futurum 
an preterito meaning, which developed into a conditional future, and into 
an expression of wish and command; and, in Latin, lost its connection | 
with past time. 


The other tenses of the Subjunctive are compounds formed (in 
Latin alone) to remedy the confusion of optative and subjunctive. 
The Subjunctive has, therefore, the uses of both the optative and 
subjunctive of the cognate languages. : 


3. Hortatory Subjunctive. The subjunctive is used 
in the Present —less commonly in the Perfect — to express 
a command or exhortation: as, | 


hos latrones interficiamus (B. G. vii. 38), let us kill these 
robbers. 

aut bibat aut abeat (Tusc. v. 41), let him quaff or quit. 

caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verecundie (Off. i. 34), 
let them shun excess and cherish modesty. 

Epicurus hoc viderit (Acad. ii. 7), let Epicurus look to this. 

his quoque de rebus pauca dicantur (Off. i. 35), of this, too, let 
a few words be said. 


Note.— The Perfect represents an action as complete in the future ; 
but in most cases it can hardly be distinguished from the Present. 


a. The Second Person is used only of an indefinite subject, 
except in prohibition, in early Latin, and in poetry: as, 


injurias fortune, quas ferre nequeas, defugiendo relinquas 
(Tusc. v. 41), the wrongs of fortune, which you cannot bear, 
you will leave behind by flight. 

nihil ignoveris (Mur. 31), Aatdon nothing. 

amicus populo Romano sis (Liv. xxvi. 50), de a friend to the 
Roman people. | 


150 SYNTAX OF TIIE VERB. (57: 3,4 


a b. In prohibitions, the Perfect is more common than the Pres- 
ent: as, : 


hoc facito: hoc ne feceris (Div. ii. 61), thou shalt do this: thou 
shalt not do that. 

nec mihi illud dixeris (Fin. i. 7), do not say that to me. 

ne territus fueris (Tac. H. i. 16), be not Lerrifed. 


c. The hortatory subjunctive is used — sometimes with modo, 
modo ne, tantum, tantum ne, or ne alone—to denote a pro- 
viso (§ 61, 3): as, 


valetudo modo bona sit (Brut. 16), ¢/ only the health be good. 

ne illi sanguinem nostrum largiantur (Sall. Cat. 52), provided 
they be not lavish of our blood. 

modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 30), Arovided only he 
be not of brutish stock. 

tantummodo Gneus noster ne Italiam relinquat (Q. F. iii. 9), 
if only Pompey will not forsake /taly. 

manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria 
(Cat. M.7), old men retain their mind if they only retain thetr 
zeal and diligence. 


ad. The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunc- 
tive denote an obligation in past time, —the latter more clearly 
representing the time for the action as past: as, 


moreretur, inquies (Rab. Post.), ke should have died you will 
say. 

ne poposcisses (Att. ii. 1), you should not have asked. 

potius diceret (Off. iii. 22), he should rather have said. 

saltem aliquid de pondere detraxisset (Fin. iv. 20), a¢ least he 
should have taken something from the weight. 


4. Optative Subjunctive. The subjunctive is used to 
denote a Wish, —the Present, a wish conceived as possible ; 
the Imperfect, an unaccomplished one in the present; the 
Pluperfect, one unaccomplished in the pasé: as, 


ita vivam (Att. v. 15), so may J live [as true as I live]. 

ne vivam si scio (id. iv.16), Zwsk J may not live if L know. 

di te perduint (Deiot.), ¢he gods confound thee! 

valeant, valeant, cives mei; valeant, sint incolumes (Mil. 34), 
farewell (he says], my fellow-citizens; may they be secure 
Srom harm. 


a. The Perfect in this use is antiquated: as, 


male di tibi faxint (Plaut. Curc. 131), may the gods do thee a 
mischief. 


57: 4, 5.] USE OF MOODS: SUBJUNCTIVE. 151 


b. The particles uti (ut), utinam, O si, often precede the 
Subjunctive of wish: as, 


falsus utinam vates sim (Liv. xxi.), Zwisk I may be a false 
prophet. 

ut pereat positum rubigine telum (Hor. Sat. ii. 1), may the un- 
used weapon perish with rust. 

utinam me mortuum vidisses (Q. Fr. i. 3), would you had seen 
me dead. 


Note. — In this use, the particle has no effect on the grammatical 
construction, except that O si is probably a Protasis. 


c. Velim with the present subjunctive, and vellem with the 
imperfect or pluperfect — with their compounds — (strictly, con- 
ditional sentences with the wish in a dependent clause) are often 
used instead of a proper optative subjunctive: as, 


de Menedemo vellem verum fuisset, de regina velim verum sit 
(Att. iv. 16), about Mendemus I wish it had been true; about 
the queen I hope tt may be. 

nollem accidisset tempus (Fam. iii. 10), 2 wish the time never 
had come. 


5. Concessive Subjunctive. ‘The subjunctive is used 
to express a concession, either with or without ut, quamvis, 
quamlibet, and similar words. 


Remark. — In this use, the Present refers to future or indefinite 
time; the Imperfect to present or past time, — the concession being 
impliedly untrue; the Perfect to past time or completed future 
time; the Pluperfect to completed action in past time (usually 
untrue): as, 


nemo is unquam fuit: ne fuerit (Or. 29), zhere never was such 
a one you will say: granted. 

quamvis comis in amicitiis tuendis fuerit (Fin. ii. 25), amzable 
as he may have been in keeping his friendships. 

sit Scipio clarus, ornetur Africanus, erit profecto aliquid loci 
nostrz gloriz (Cat. iv. 10), be Scipio glorious, and Africanus 
honored, yet surely there will be some room for our fame. 

dixerit hoc idem Epicurus ... non pugnem cum homine (Fin. 
v. 27), though Epicurus may have said the same, I would not 
contend with the man. 

ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est (Tusc. ii. 5), 
granted that pain is not the greatest evil, at least tt ts 
an evil. 

fuerit aliis: tibi quando esse ccepit (Verr. i. 41), suppose he was 
[so] to others, when did he begin to be to you ? 


152 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: 6, 7. 


# 6. The Present, and rarely the Perfect Subjunctive, are 
used in questions implying doubt, indignation, or an impossi- 
bility of the thing being done (dubitative subjunctive) : as, 
_ sed quid faciamus (Att. viii. 23), but what can we do? 

quid loquar plura (Pis. 32), why should I sav more ? 

quid hoc homine faciatis (Verr. il. 16), what are you to do with 


this fellow ? 2 
an ego exspectem dum tabelle diribeantur (Pis. 40), what, 


shall I watt till the ballots are counted ? 
quis enim celaverit ignem (Ov. Her. xv. 7), who could conceal 


the flame ? 
The Imperfect denotes the same idea in past time: as, 


an ego non venirem (Phil. ti. 2), what, should I not have come ? 
quid dicerem (Att. vi. 3), what was I to say? 


7% Imperative. The Imperative is used in Commands; 
also, by early writers and poets, in Prohibitions: as, 


consulite vobis, prospicite patriz, conservate vos (Cat. iv. 2), 
have care for yourselves, guard the country, preserve your- 


selves. [ much. 
nimium ne crede colori (Ecl. ii. 17), ¢rust not complexion over- 
ad me fac venias (Fam. xiv. 4), do come to me. 


| @. Prohibitions are regularly (in classical Latin) expressed by 
ne with the second person singular of the Perfect Subjunctive ; by 
¢ noli with the Infinitive ; or by cave (colloquially fac ne) with the 
Present or Perfect Subjunctive: as, 
ne territus fueris (Tac. H. i. 16), de not frightened. 
noli putare (Brut. 33), do not suppose. 
cave faxis (Ter. Heaut. 187), do not do it. 
fac ne quid aliud cures (Fam. xvi. 11), pray attend to nothing 
else. 


b. In early Latin, in poetry, and in general prohibitions, the 
Present Subjunctive is also used: as, 


Albi ne doleas (Hor. Od. i. 33), grteve not, Albius. 
| denique isto bono utare dum adsit: cum absit ne requiras (Cat. 
"ig M. 10), 22 short, use this good while present ; when wanting, 
do not regret it. 


Remark. — The third person of the Imperative is antiquated 
or poetic. 


ollis salus populi suprema lex esto (id.), the safety of the people 
shall be thetr first law. 

justa imperia sunto, iisque cives modeste parento (Leg. iii. 3), 
let the commands be just, and let the citizens strictly obey hem. 


57: 7; 8:3 USE OF MOODS: INFINITIVE. 153 


c. The Future Imperative is used where there is a distinct 
reference to the future time: viz. 

1. In connection with a future or future-perfect ; 

2. With adverbs or other expressions of time ; 

3. In general directions, as Precepts, Statutes, Edicts, and 
Wills: as, 


cum valetudini consulueris, tum consulito navigationi (Fam. 
xvi. 4), when you have attended to your health, then look to 
your satling. 

rei suze ergo ne quis legatus esto (Leg.), zo one shall be ambas- 
sador in his own affair. 


Remark. — The future form of the imperative is regularly used 
of scio, memini, and habeo (in the sense of consider): as, 


filiolo me auctum scito (Att. i. 2), Zearnu that I am blessed with 
a little boy. 

sic habeto, mi Tiro (Fam. xvi. 4), so understand it, my good 
Tiro. 

de palla memento, amabo (PI. Asin.), pray, dear, remember 

the gown. 

d. The Future is sometimes used for the imperative ; and quin 
(why not?) with the present indicative may have the force of an 
imperative: as, 

si quid acciderit novi, facies ut sciam (Fam. xiv. 8), you well let 


me know tf anything new happens. 
quin accipis? (Ter. Heaut. iv. 7), here, take it. 


S$. Infinitive. The Infinitive denotes the action of the 
verb as an abstract noun, differing, however, from other 
abstract nouns in the followmg points:— (1) It admits, in 
many cases, of the distinction of tense; (2) It is modified by 
adverbs and not by adjectives; (3) It governs the case of its 
verb; (4) It is only used in special constructions. 

Nore. — The Infinitive is properly the Dative case of an abstract 
noun, denoting Purpose, which has developed in Latin, in many cases, 


into a substitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use. I's 
Subject is, strictly, the Object of some other verb, which has become 


——*s eo 


attached to it: as, jubeo te valere, lit., 7 command you for being well . 
(i.e. that you may be well); just as, in Purpose-clauses, the purpose © 


becomes the object of command (compare Purpose Clauses, § 64). 


a. Infinitive as Subject. The infinitive, with or without a 
subject accusative, may be used as the Subject of a verb (or in 
predicate apposition), and, rarely, as the Object: as, 

71* ae 


154 . SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: 8. 


nihil est aliud [hominem] bene et beate vivere, nisi honeste 
et recte vivere (Parad. i. 6), 20 live well and happily, is noth- 
ing else than to live honorably and rightly. 

invidere non cadit in sapientem (Tusc. ili. 10), exvy does not 
belong to a wise man. 

est humanitatis vestre...prohibere (Man. 7), ¢¢ zs for your 

humanity to hold safe, &c. : 

nam istuc ipsum zoz esse cum fueris miserrimum puto (Tusc. 
i.6), for 1 think this very thing most wretched, not to be when 
one has been. . 


In this use, the infinitive is found chiefly with esse and impersonal 
verbs, —rarely with others. 


b. The infinitive is used with many Impersonal verbs and ex- 
pressions, partly as subject and partly as complement (see Note 
below): as, 


te abundare oportet przceptis (Off. i. 1), you must abound in 
maxims. 

id primum in poetis cerni licet (De Or. iii. 7), this may be seen 

_ first in poets. 

reperiebat quid dici opus esset (Brut. 59), he found what needed 
to be said. 

hec prescripta servantem licet magnifice vivere (Off. i. 26), 
one who observes these precepts may live nobly. 

proponis quam sit turpe me adesse (Att. ix. 2), you make it 
clear how base it is for me to be present. , 


c. Complementary Infinitive. The infinitive, without: a 
subject, is used with verbs which require another action of the 


_same subject to complete their meaning. Such are verbs denoting 
to be able, dare, undertake, remember, forget, be accustomed, begin, 


continue, cease, hesitate, learn, know how, fear, and the like: as, 


hoc queo dicere (Cat. M. 10), this J can say. 

mitto querere (Rosc. Am ), J omit to ask. [own presence. 
vereor laudare presentem (N. D.i. 21), 7 fear to praise in one's 
oro ut matures venire (Att. iv. 1), pray make haste to come. 


Notr. — The mark of this construction is that no Subject of these 
infinitives is admissible or conceivable; though the same verbs, in 
other senses, may take an infinitive with a subject. 

d. The infinitive is used optionally with many verbs which also 
take a subjunctive clause (§ 70): such are those signifying willing- 
ness, necessity, propriety, resolve, command, prohibition, effort, and 
the like. The subject is usually, though not always, omitted, when 
it is the same as that of the principal verb: as, 


quos tueri debent deserunt (Off. i. 9), they forsake those whom 
they should protect. 


Atticos volo imitari (Brut. 82), Z wish to imitate the Attics. 


57: 8.] - USE. OF MOODS: INFINITIVE. 154 


student excellere (Off. i. 32), chey aim to excel. 

istum exheredare in animo habebat (Rosc. Am. 18), he had it 
tn mind to deprive him of the inheritance. 

cupio me esse clementem [= cupio esse clemens] (Cat. i. 2), 
Lf desire to be merctful. 


Some of these verbs —jubeo and veto regularly — may take the 
infinitive with another subject: as, 


signa inferri jubet (Liv. xlii. 59), ke orders the standards to 
be borne forward. 


Nore. — This construction, though in many cases different from 
the two preceding, shades off imperceptibly into them. In none of 
the uses is the infinitive strietly Subject or Object; but its meaning 
is developed from the original one of purpose. Hence the distinction 
between the uses is not always clearly marked. 


é. With Subject Accusative. The infinitive, with subject | 


accusative, is regularly used after words of knowing, thinking, 
telling, and the like (verba sentiendi et declarandi, § 67, 1): 
as, 


dicit montem ab hostibus teneri (B. G. i. 22), he says that the 


hill ts held by the enemy. 
Note.— The Infinitive may thus represent, in indirect discourse, a 
finite verb in direct discourse, admitting all the variations of the eon 
except number and person (see § 67). 


Remark. —1. With verbs which govern the dative, the eee 
of the action may be in the dative. With licet regularly, and with 
others rarely, the predicate may also be in the dative: as, 


nemini certare cum eo necesse fuit (Liv. xxi. 11), there was’ 


need for none to strive with him. 
non libet mihi deplorare vitam (Cat. M. 23), Z have no desire 
to bewail life. [ gent. 
mihi negligenti esse non licet (Att. i. 17), Z must not be negli- 
-non est stantibus omnibus necesse dicere (Marc. 11), ¢¢ zs not 
necessary for all to speak standing. 
expedit bonas esse vobis (Ter. Heaut. ii. 4), ¢¢ zs for your 
tnterest to be good. 


So with the dativus commodi: as, 


quid est tam secundum naturam quam senibus emori (Cat. M. 


19), what is so according to nature as for old men to die? 
2 When the subject of the infinitive is not expressed, a predi- 
cate (except after impersonals) takes the case of the main subject: 


si esset in iis fides in quibus summa esse debebat (Fam. i. 1), 
if there were faith in those in whom it ought to be greatest. 


So, by a Greek idiom, even in Indirect Discourse: as, 


vir bonus et sapiens ait esse paratus (Hor. Ep. i. a), a good and 
wise man says he is prepared, &c. 


oe 


156. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: 8. 


sensit medios delapsus in hostes (En. ii. 377), he found himself 
Sallen amongst the foe. 


f. In a few cases, the infinitive retains its original meaning of 
() purpose: viz. 


1. With habeo, do, ministro, in isolated passages: as, | 
tantum habeo polliceri (Fam. i.5), so much I have to promise. 


2. After the adjectives paratus, suetus, and their compounds. 
id quod parati sunt facere (Quin. 2), which they are ready to do. 


3. In poetry and later writers with any verb or adjective: as, 


durus componere versus (Hor. Sat. i. 4), harsh in composing 
furit te reperire (Hor. Od. i. 15), he rages to find thee. | verse. 


cantari dignus (Ecl. v. 54), worthy to be sung. 
Q 


Remark. — Rarely, in poetry, the infinitive is used to denote 
result. 


g- The infinitive, with subject-accusative, may be used in Ex- 
clamations (compare § 52, 4): as, 


mene incepto desistere victam (4£n.i.37), what! I desist beaten 
Jrom my purpose ? 

te in tantas z2rumnas propter me incidisse (Fam. xiv. 1), alas! 
that you should fall into such grief for me. 


Norr.— This construction is elliptical: that is, the thought is 
quoted in Indirect Discourse, though no verb of Saying, &c., appears, 
or perhaps is thought of (compare the French dire que). 


h. Historical Infinitive. The Infinitive is often used for the 
tenses of the Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the 
nominative: as, 


tum Catilina polliceri novas tabulas (Sall. Cat. 21), then Cati- 
line promised abolition of debts (clean ledgers]. 

ego instare ut mihi responderet (Verr. ii. 77), J Dressed him to 
answer. 


This usage is most frequent where many verbs are crowded 
together in rapid narrative: as, 


pars cedere, alii insequi; neque signa neque ordines servare; 

‘ _ ubi quemque periculum ceperat, ibi resistere ac propulsare; 

arma, tela, equi, viri, hostes atque cives permixti; nihil 

consilio neque imperio agi; fors omnia regere (Jug. 51), 

a part give way, others press on; they hold netther to stan- 

dards nor ranks; where danger overtook, there each would 

stand and fight ; weapons, missiles, horses, men, foe and friend, 

were mixed; nothing went by counsel or command; chance 
ruled all. 


58: 152.] USE OF TENSES: INDICATIVE. 157 


58. User or TENSEs. 


. The Tenses are the Present, Imperfect, Future 
(of incomplete action), and the Perfect, Pluperfect, 
Future Perfect (of completed action). 


1. Tenses of the Indicative. The tenses of the In- 
dicative denote absolute time ; that is, present, past, or future, 
in reference to the Speaker. 


2. Present. The Present denotes an action or state, as 
now existing, as incomplete, or as indefinite without reference 
to time: as, 

agitur salus sociorum (Manil. 2), ¢he safety of our allies is 
at stake. 
Senatus hec intellegit, consul videt, hic tamen vivit (Cat. i.1), 
the Senate knows this, the consul sees, yet this man lives. 

nihil est victoria dulcius (Verr. vi. 26), zothing is sweeter than 
victory. 

tu actionem instituis, ille aciem instruit (Mur. 9), you arrange 
a@ case, he arrays an army. 


a. The present, with expressions of duration of time, denotes 
an action begun in the past but continuing in the present: as, 


patimur jam multos annos (Verr. vi. 48), we suffer now these 
many Years. 

anni sunt octo cum ista causa versatur (Clu. 30), zz zs now eight 
years that this case has-been in hand. 


6, Conative Present. The present sometimes denotes an 
action not completed at all, but only attempted: as, 


Quintus frater Tusculanum venditat (Att. i. 14), my brother 
Quintus is trying to sell the place at Tusculum. 


(So the present Infinitive and Participle.) 


c. The present, especially in colloquial ecaeges is sometimes 
used for the future: as, 


imusne sessum (De Or. iii. 5), shall we take a seat ? 

ecquid me adjuvas? (Clu. 26), won't you give me a little help? 

in jus voco te. noneo. non is? (Pl. As. 480), Z summon you 
to the court. Iwont go. You wont? 

si reus condemnatur, desinent homines dicere his judiciis pecu- 
niam plurimum posse (Verr. i.2), 7f the prisoner ts convicted, 
men will no longer say that money ts the chief power tn the 
courts. 


(See also under cum, antequam, dum § 62.) 


158 . SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [58:: 253. 


d. Historical Present. The present in lively narrative is 
often used for the historical perfect: as, 

affertur nuntius Syracusas; curritur ad pretorium ; Cleomenes, 
quamquam nox erat, tamen in publico esse non audet; 
includit se domi (Verr. vi. 35), the news ts brought to Syra- 
cuse; they run to head-quarters; Cleomenes, though it was 
night, does not venture to be abroad; he shuts himself up at 
home. 


e. The present is regularly used with dum, while, though re- 
ferring to past time: as, 
hzc dum aguntur, interea Cleomenes jam ad Elori litus per- 
venerat (id.), while this is going on, Cleomenes meanwhile 
had come down to the coast at Elorum. 
But when the time referred to is contrasted with some other, the 
past tenses must be used: as, 
nec enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum videbatis (Cat. 
M. 22), for even when I was with you, you did not see my soul. 
f. The present is regularly used of writers whose works are 
extant: as, 
Epicurus vero ea dicit (Tusce. ii. 7), du¢ Epicurus says such 
things. 
apud illum Ulysses lamentatur in vulnere (id. 21), zz him 
[Sophocles] Ulysses bewails over his wound. 


_ &. Imperfect. The Imperfect denotes an action or con- 
dition continued or repeated in past time: as, 
hunc audiebant antea (Man. 5), they used to hear him before. 
- Socrates ita censebat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 30), Socrates 
thought so (habitually] and so he spoke [then]. 


C. Duilium redeuntem a cen4 senem szpe videbam (C.M. 13), 
1 would often see Duilius, then old, coming home from dinner. 


a. Hence the imperfect is used in descriptions: as, 


erant: omnino itinera duo... mons altissimus impendebat 
(B.G.i 6), there were in all two ways...a very high moun- 
tain overhung. 
b. The imperfect is sometimes used in the sense of a pluperfect 
and imperfect combined (see above, 2, a): as, 
copias quas diu comparabant (Fam. 1. 13), the forces which 
they had long been getting ready. 
- C+ The imperfect sometimes denotes an action merely attempted, 
but never accomplished (compare conative present, 2, b): as, 


‘58: 3,4, 5-] ‘ USE OF TENSES. 159 


in exsilium eiciebam quem jam ingressum esse in bellum vide- 
bam (Cat. ii. 6), was 1 sending into exile one who I saw had 
already gone into war ? 
consules sedabant tumultus (Liv. iii. 15), the consuls busted 
themselves to calm the tumult. 
gi licitum esset veniebant (Verr. vi. 49), they were coming if it 
had been allowed. 


d. The imperfect is sometimes used to express a certain sur- 
prise at the present discovery of a fact already existing: as, 


O tu quoque hic aderas, Phormio (Ter. Ph. v. 6), O, you are 
here too, Phormio. 

ehem pater mi, tu hic eras? (Pl. id. v. 7), what, you here, 
Sather ? 

ah miser! quanta laborabas Charybdi (Hor. Od. i. 27), unhappy 
boy, what a whirlpool you are struggling in [and I never 
knew it]. 


e. The imperfect is often used in narration by the comic poets, 
where later writers would employ the perfect: as, 
ad amicum Calliclem quoi rem aibat mandasse hic suam (Trin. 
956), to his friend Callicles, to whom, he said, he had intrusted 
his property. 
presagibat animus frustra me ire quom exibam domo (Aul. 


222), my mind mistrusted when I went from home that L went 
in Vain. 


f. The imperfect ind. in Apodosis, contrary to fact, regularly 
refers to present time (see § 59, 3, @). 


4. Future. The Future denotes an action or condition 
that will occur hereafter. 
[For Future instead of the Imperative, see § 57, 7, d.] 


5. Perfect. The Perfect definite denotes an action as 
now completed; the Perfect Aistorical, as having taken place 
indefinitely, in past time: as, 


ut ego feci, qui Grecas litteras senex didici (C. M. 8), as J have 
done, who have learned Greek in my old age. 

tantum bellum extrema hieme apparavit, ineunte vere suscepit, 
media zstate confecit (Man. 12), so great a war he made 
ready for at the end of winter, undertook in early spring, and 
jinished by midsummer. 


[For the difference between the Perfect and Imperfect in nar- 
ration, see Note, page 53. ] | 


160 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [58: 5, 6.> 


a. The perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that 
something no longer exists: as, 


fuit ista quondam in hac re publica virtus (Cat. i.1), there was 
once such virtue tn this commonwealth. 

fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium (4E£n. ii. 325), we were Trojans, Ilium 
did exist. 

habuit, non habet (Tusc. i. 36), he had, he has no longer. 


b. The perfect is sometimes used of indefinite time in connec- 
tion with a general present: as, 


qui in compedibus corporis semper fuerunt, etiam cum soluti 
sunt tardius ingrediuntur (Tusc. i. 31), they who have always 
been in fetters of the body, even when released move more 
slowly. 


c. The perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, especially 
with negations: as, 


qui studet contingere metam multa tulit fecitque (Hor. A. P. 
412), ke who aims to reach the goal, first bears and does many 
things. 

non eris acervus et auri deduxit corpore febres (id. Ep. i. 2), 
the pile of brass and gold removes not the fever from the 
Srame. 


d. The perfect is often used in expressions containing or im- 
plying a negation, where in affirmation the imperfect would be pre- 
ferred: as, 

dicebat melius quam scripsit Hortensius (Or. 38), Hortenszus 

spoke better than he wrote. [Here the negative is implied in 
the comparison: compare the use of quisquam, ullus, &c. 
(foot of p. 48), and the French ne after comparatives and 
superlatives. } 


[For Perfect in apodosis of future conditions, see § 59, 4, e; 
for Perfect after ubi, &., § 62, 2, a.] 


Remark.— The Perfect and Pluperfect of a few verbs are 
equivalent to the Present and Imperfect of kindred verbs: novi, 
I know ; odi (osus), I hate; memini, I remember; cognoveram, 
I knew ; venerat (= aderat), he was at hand (see § 36, 1): as, 


qui dies zstus maximos efficere consuevit (B. G. iv. 29), which 

| day generally makes the highest tides. 

cujus splendor obsolevit (Quince. v. 18), whose splendor ts now 
out of date. 


6. Pluperfect. The Pluperfect is used to denote an 
action completed in time past; sometimes, also, repeated in 
indefinite time: as, 


58: 7-10.] USE OF ‘TENSES. 161 


neque vero cum aliquid mandaverat confectum putabat (Cat. 
ili. 7), for when he had given a thing in charge he did not 
look on it as already done. 

quz si quando adepta est id quod ei fuerat concupitum, tum 
fert alacritatem (Tusc. iv. 15), ¢f7¢ [desire] ever has gained 
what it had destred, then tt produces joy. 


7%. Future Perfect. The Future Perfect denotes an 
action as completed in the future: as, 
ut sementem feceris ita metes (Or. ii. 65), as YOU sow, so shall 


you reap. 


Remark. — The Future Perfect is used (as above) with much 
reater exactness in Latin than in English, and may even be used 
instead of the Future, from the fondness of the Latins for repre- 
senting an action as completed: as, 
quid inventum sit paulo. post videro (Acad. ii. 24), what has 
been found out I will see presently. 
ego certe meum officium prestitero se G. iv. 25) I at least 
shall have done my duty. 


8. Epistolary Tenses. In Letters, the perfect (his- 
torical) or imperfect may be used for the present, and the plu- 
perfect for past tenses, as if the letter were dated at the time 


it is supposed to be received: as, 

“neque tamen, cum hec scribebam, eram nescius quantis oneri- 
bus premerere (Fam. v. 12), zor while I write this am I 
ignorant under what burdens you are weighed down. 

ad tuas omnes [epistulas] rescripseram pridie (Att. ix. 10), Z 
[have] azswered all your letters yesterday. 

9. Tenses of the Subjunctive. The tenses of the Sub- 

junctive denote Absolute time only in tmdependent clauses. 


In these the Present always refers to future time ; the Imper- 


fect to either past or present ; the Perfect to either future or — 


past ; the Pluperfect always to past. 

In dependent clauses, the tenses of the Subjunctive denote 
Relative time, not with reference to the speaker, but to the 
action of some other verb. 


10. Sequence of Tenses. The forms which denote 
absolute time may be used in any connection. But those 
denoting relative time follow special rules for the Sequence 
of Tenses. For this purpose, tenses are divided into two 
classes: Viz. 


¢ 


162 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. _ [58: to. 


i 1. Primary, including the Present, both Futures, and Perfect 
(definite) ; 
ff 2. Secondary, including the Imperfect, Perfect (historical), ) < 
and Pluperfect. 
Ru.ie.—In compound sentences, a Primary tense in the 
leading clause is followed by a Primary tense in the dependent 
clause ; and a Secondary tense is followed by a Secondary : as, 


scribit ut nos moneat, he writes to warn us. 
scribet ut nos moneat, he will write to warn us. 
scripsit ut nos moneat, he has written to warn us. 

. scribe (scribito) ut nos moneas, write that you may warn us. 
scripsit ut nos moneret, he wrote to warn us. 

' geribit quasi oblitus sit, he writes as if he had forgotten. 
scripsit quasi oblitus esset, he wrote as if he had forgotten. 


Remark. — The Rule appears in the following Diagram : — 


TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 
: ; Primary. Secondary. 
1. Action not complete (time ert Pensuwe!’ peeeawee. 


tively present or future). 
2. Action complete (time relatively 
' past). 


In applying the rule for the Sequence of Tenses, consider (1) 
ehcihee the leading verb is primary or secondary ; (2) whether the 
dependent verb is required to denote complete action (i.e. rela- 
tively past), or incomplete (relatively present or future). By tak- 
ing the corresponding tense, as given above, the correct usage 
will generally be found. 

Notice that the FururE Prrrect denotes relatively completed 
action, and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by the Prr- 
FECT or PLUPERFECT. 








i PERFECT. | PLUPERFECT. 


a. The perfect definite is properly a primary tense; but as its 
action is (at least) commenced in past time, it is more commonly 
followed by secondary tenses: as, 


ut satis esset presidi provisum est (Cat. ii. 12), Arovision has 
been made that there should be ample guard. 

adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus possetis 
(Verr. i. 1), 2 have brought a man in whose person you can 
make satisfaction to foreign nations. 


b. The perfect subjunctive is regularly used to denote any past 
action (either as Perfect definite or historical) depending on a verb 
in a primary tense: as, 


53° 10.) ! USE OF TENSES. 163 


ex epistulis intellegi licet quam frequens fuerit Platonis auditor 
(Or. 4), zt may be understood from his letters how constant a 
hearer he was of Plato. 


ce. In clauses of Result, the perfect subjunctive is very often 
(the present rarely) used after secondary tenses: as, 


Hortensius ardebat dicendi cupiditate sic ut in nullo unquam 
flagrantius studium viderim (Brut. 88), Hortenstus was so hot 
with desire of speaking that I never saw a more burning 
ardor tn any man. ? 

Siciliam Verres per triennium ita vexavit ac perdidit, ut ea 
restitui in antiquum statum nullo modo possit (Verr. i. 4), 
for three years |Verres] so racked and ruined Sicily, that she. 
can in no way be restored to her former state. 


Remark. — This construction gives more emphasis to the fact 
stated as a result; while the regular one gives more prominence 
to the main clause. The perfect, thus used, can stand only for a 
perfect indicative, not an imperfect ; and, in general, the perfect is 
vften represented by the perfect subjunctive, contrary to the 
general rule: as, 


Thorius erat ita non superstitiosus ut illa plurima in sua pa- 
triad et sacrificia et fana contemneret; ita non timidus ad 
mortem ut in acie sit ob rem publicam interfectus (Fin. il. 
20), Thorius was so little superstitious that he despised |con- 
temnebat] the many sacrifices and shrines tn his country, so 
little timorous about death that he was killed (interfectus est] 
in battle, in defence of the state. 

Zeno nullo modo is erat qui nervos virtutis inciderit [compare 
5, @]; sed contra qui omnia in una virtute poneret (Acad. i. 
10), Zeno was noway one to cut the sinews of virtue ; but one, 
on the contrary, who made everything depend on virtue alone. 


dad. A general truth after a past tense follows the connection 
of tenses in Latin (though not usually in English): as, 


ex his que tribuisset sibi quam mutabilis esset reputabat (Q.C. 
iii. 9), from what she [Fortune] had bestowed on him, he re- 
flected how tnconstant she ts. ; 

ibi quantam vim ad stimulandos animos ira haberet, apparu'‘t 
(Liv. xxxiii. 37), here «tt appeared what power anger has to 
goad the mind. 


&. The historical present, or the present with dum, may be 
followed by either primary or secondary tenses, but more com- 
monly by secondary; as, 


rogat ut euret quod dixisset (Quinct. 5), Ze asks him to attend to 
the thing he had spoken of. area 

castella communit quo facilius prohiberi possent (B. G. i. 8), 
he strengthens the forts that they might be more easily kept 
off: 


164 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [58: 10, 11. 


Ff. When the secondary tenses of the subjunctive are used in 
protasis and apodosis, they may stand after any tense: as, 

quia tale sit, ut vel si ignorarent id homines, &c. (Fin. ii. 15), 

because tt is such that even if men were ignorant. 

g- The imperfect subjunctive, in protasis or apodosis, even 
when it refers to present time, is regularly followed by secondary 
tenses: as, 

si solos eos diceres miseros quibus moriendum esset, neminem 

exciperes (Tusc. i. 5), ¢f you called only those wretched who 
must die, you would except no one. 
h. After the present, when a past tense appears to be in the 
writer’s thought, secondary tenses sometimes follow by a kind of 
Synesis: as, . 
sed tamen ut scires hec tibi scribo (Fam. xiii. 47), but yet that 
you may know, 1 write thus (as if Epistolary Imperfect]. 

cujus precepti tanta vis est ut ea non homini cuipiam sed 
Delphico deo tribueretur (Leg. i. 22), such zs the force of this 
precept, that it was ascribed not to any man, but to the Del- 
phic god {the precept was an old one}. 


, Al. Infinitive. The tenses of the Infinitive are present, 
\past, or future, relatively to the time of the verb on which 
~{ they depend: as, 
' nostros non esse inferiores intellexit (B. G. ii. 8), Ze ascertained 
that our men were not inferior. 
quam Juno fertur terris magis omnibus coluisse (En. i. 15), 
which Funo, ’tis said, cherished above all lands. 
sperant se maximum fructum esse capturos (Lal. 21), zhey hope 
they shall receive the greatest advantage. 
a. The present infinitive, after a verb in the past, must often 
be rendered by the perfect infinitive in English: as, 
scire potuit (Milo, 17), Ze might have' known. 
qui videbatur omnino mori non debuisse (Arch. 8), who seemed 
[one that] ought not to have died at all. 
Remark. — This is most frequent with verbs of necessity, pro- 
priety, and possibility (potui, debui, oportuit), 
b. The perfect infinitive represents, in indirect discourse (§ 67, 
1), any past tense of a finite mood. But the imperfect is some- 
times represented by the present infinitive, — regularly after 
memini where the memory recalls the action, but not where it 
recalls the mere fact (compare G. 203, N. 1): as, 
quis potest credere senatum putdsse (Mil. 5), who can believe 
the Senate thought (dir. disc. putabat]? 
memini Catonem mecum disserere (Lzl. 3), J remember Cato’s 
discoursing with me (So dicere aiebat, De Or. ii. 3). 
meministis me ita distribuisse causam (Rosc. Am. 42), you 
remember that I so laid out the case. 


58: 11.] : USE OF TENSES. 165 


c. Except in Indirect Discourse the present infinitive only is 
generally used, with no distinct reference to time: as, 


est adulescentis majores natu vereri (Off. i. 34), ¢ zs the duty 
of the young to reverence their elders. 

de quibus dicere aggrediar (Off. ii. 1), of which I will under- 
take to speak. 


d. After verbs of wishing, necessity, and the like, the perfect 
passive infinitive is often used instead of the present: as, 


domestica cura te levatum [esse] volo (Q.F. iii. 9), 7 wish you 
relieved of household care. yee ei 

liberis consultum volumus propter ipsos (Fin. iii. 17), we wish 
regard paid to children on their own account. 

quod jampridem factum esse oportuit (Cat. i. 2), which ought 
to have been done long ago. 


Remark. — In early Latin, and in poetry, the perfect active is 
also used, and even after other verbs than those of wishing: as, 


commisisse cavet (Hor. A. P. 168), he zs cautious of doing. 

edixerunt ne quis quid fuge caus& vendidisse neve emisse 
vellet (Liv. xxxix. 17), they [the old laws] declared that none 
should sell or buy to escape obligation. 

haud equidem premendo alium me extulisse velim (id. xxii. §9), 

IL would not by crushing another exalt myself. 

sunt qui nolint tetigisse (Hor. Sat. i. 2), zhere are those who 
would not touch. 

nollem dixisse (Verr. v. 20), Z would not say. 


e. The perfect infinitive is used, especially by poets, to denote 
a completed action after verbs of feeling; also with satis est 
(habeo), melius est, contentus sum, and in a few other cases 
where this distinction is important: as, 


quiésse erit melius (Liv. iii. 48), 2# w/ll be better to have kept 
quitt- . Re On) a 

non peenitebat intercapedinem scribendi fecisse (Fam. xvi. 21), 
ZI was not sorry to have made a respite of writing. 

pudet me... non prestitisse (id. xiv. 3), J am ashamed not to 


have shown. , Bares 

sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum collegisse juvat (Hor. 
Od. i. 1), there are those who delight, &c. ; 

majus dedecus est parta amittere quam omnino non paravisse 
(Jug. 31), et 2s more discredit to have lost one’s gatus than 
never to have gained at all. f 

nil ego si peccem possum nescisse (Ov. Her. xvii. 47), ¢f 7 go 
wrong, I cannot have done tt in ignorance. 


f. The future infinitive is often expressed by fore or futu- 
rum esse ut (§ 70, 4): as, 


spero fore ut contingat id nobis (Tusc. i.), 7 hope that will be 
our happy lot. [But, sperat se Zosse (Mil. 12). ] 


166 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. (59: x. 


59. CoNnpDITIONAL SENTENCES. 


A Conditional Sentence (or Clause) is one beginning 
with IF, or some equivalent. 


1. Protasis and Apodosis. In a conditional sentence, 
the clause containing the condition is called the Protasis; and 
that containing the conclusion is called the Apodosis: as, 


si qui exire volunt [PROTASIS], conivere possum [APoposIs] 
(Cat. ii. 12), tf any wish to depart, I can keep my eyes shut. 


a. The Protasis is regularly introduced by the conditional 
particles si, if; sin, but if; nisi (ni), unless. But a clause in- 
troduced by an Indefinite Relative (as quisquis, whoever), a 
Relative,or Concessive Conjunction (cum, since, quamvis, al- 
though), a Participle, or an Imperative, is treated as a conditional 
clause: as, 


quzcunque causa vos huc attulisset, letarer (De Or. ii. 4), 
I should be glad, whatever cause had brought you here [i.e. if 
any other, as well as the one which did]. 

_ philosophia, cui qui pareat, omne tempus etatis sine molestia 
possit degere (Cat. M.1), Dhkilosophy, which iF any one obeys, 
he will be able to spend his whole life without vexation. 

virtutem qui adeptus erit ubicunque erit gentium a nobis dili- 
getur (N. D. i. 44), 7f any one shall have attained virtue, &c. 


[For Implied Conditions, see § 60.] 


Nortr. — The Indefinite Relative, whoever, whatever, whenever, may be 
regarded as a conditional expression, equivalent to if any one, if at any 
time, &c., as is seen in the analogy of the Greek 6¢ ay, érav, and in the 
structure of relative as compared with conditional clauses. In the 
Statutes of Massachusetts, for instance, the phrase ‘‘ Whoever shall” 
has been substituted for the old form “‘ Ir any person shall,” &e. 


6. The Apodosis, being the main clause, depends in form on 
the grammatical structure of the sentence, which may require a 
Participle, Infinitive, or Phrase: as, 


quod si przterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum solA decima 

_ legione iturum (B. G. i. 40), dut tf no one else would follow, 
he would go with the tenth legion alone. 

si quos adversum prelium commoveret, hos reperire posse (id.), 
if the loss of a battle alarmed any, they might find. 

sepulturé quoque prohibituri, ni rex humari jussisset (Q. C. 
viii. 2), zatending also to deprive him of burial, unless the 
king had ordered him to be interred. 


$9: 2.] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 167 


2. Particular and General Conditions. The sup- 
position contained in a Protasis may be either particular or 
general, - 


a. A Particular supposition refers to a definite act (or a definite 
series of acts) occurring at some definite time: as, 


si hzc condicio consulatis data est... feram libenter (Cat. 
iv. 1), ¢f this condition has been imposed on the consulship, 
I will bear it willingly. 


b. A General supposition refers to any one of a class of acts, 


which may occur (or may have occurred) at any time: as, 


si vero habet aliquod tamquam pabulum studi atque doctrine, 
nihil est otiosa senectute jucundius (Cat. M. 14), éudeed, if 
tt have some sustenance (as it were) of study and learning, 
' nothing ts more cheerful than an old age of leisure. 


Nore. — These two classes of conditions are distinguished logically ; 
and in most languages are also distinguished grammatically, — but only 
as to Present and Past Conditions. In Latin, in particular conditions, 
present or past tenses of the Indicative are regularly used in Prota- 
sis, where no opinion is intimated of its truth or falsity; and the 
Apodosis may take any form of the verb which can be used in an in- 
dependent sentence. In general conditions, also, referring to Present or 
Past time, the Indicative is for the most part used both in Protasis 
and Apodosis. (Compare Goodwin’s Greek Grammar, § 220.) , 


c. Classification. The principal forms of Conditional Sen- 
tences may be exhibited as follows : — 
1. PrEsENT oR Past ConpiTrIons. 
(a) ‘Simple statement 


(nothing implied 
as to fulfilment) : 


it is well. 


was [then] here, it was well. 


_ ( si adesset bene esset, if he were [now] 
(6) sca il ae here, it would be well. 
pein faa fulfilled); ) 8! adfuisset bene fuisset, if he had 


[then] been here, it would have sae well. 


2. par 10 Gee nguassfods AK 


(a) ie vivid (prob- { si aderit bene erit, if he is (sal be] 
ble) : here, it will be well. 


(b) fh vivid (improb- | si adsit bene sit, if he should fiiéreafter] | 


be here, it would be well. 
8. GENERAL SUPPOSITIONS. 


si hoc dicas b this, 
(a) Indefinite subject : } tis a | a pty if one says this 


cs E si_ hoc. diceret bene erat (rare), if 
(0) Repeated Action: ‘ [whenever] he said this, it was. well. 


able) : 


‘ 
ge 


¥ ¢> 2 i wh, Ltt 


si aderat (adfuit) bene erat, if he. 


si adest bene est, if he is [now] ae Z 


Vo 


168 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. ‘ (59: 3. 


3. Present and Past Conditions, <A present or past 
condition may be simply stated, implying nothing as to its 
fulfilment; or it may be stated so as to imply that it 2s not or 
wus not fulfilled. 


a. In the statement of a condition whose falsity is NoT implied, 
the present and past tenses of the Indicative are used in Protasis ; 
the apodosis expressing simply what is, was, or will be, the result 
of the fulfilment (G. 221): as, 


si tu exercitusque valetis, bene est (Fam. v. 2), ¢f you and the 
army are well, tt is well. 

si justitia vacat, in vitio est (Off. i. 19), ¢f justice be wanting, 
zt [bravery] zs ¢z fault. 

si placet... videamus (Cat. M. 5), zf you please, let us see. 

fuerit hoc censoris, si judicabat (Div. i. 16), grant that ¢t was 
the censor’s duty tf he judged, &c. 

quicquid jurarunt ventus et unda rapit (Prop. ii. 28), whatever 
they have sworn (i.e. if they have sworn anything], the winds 
and waves sweep away. 


b. In the statement of a supposition known to be false, the Im- 
perfect and Pluperfect subjunctive are used,—the imperfect 
referring to present time, the pluperfect to past (G. 222): as, 


que si exsequi nequirem, tamen me lectulus oblectaret meus 
(Cat. M. 11), #7 could not [now] follow this [an active life], 
yet my couch would afford me pleasure. 

nisi tu amisisses, nunquam recepissem (id. 4), uzless you had 
lost tt, I should not have recovered it. 

si meum consilium auctoritasque valuisset, tu hodie egeres, 

- nos liberi essemus, respublica non tot duces et exercitus 
‘amisisset (Phil. ii. 15), 2f my judgment and authority had 
prevailed (as they did not], you would this day be a beggar, 
we should be free, and the republic would not have lost so 
many leaders and armies. 


| Nore. — The implication of falsity, in this construction, is not in- 

herent in the Subjunctive; but comes from the transfer of a future 
_ condition to past time. ‘Thus the time for the happening of the condi- 
tion has, at the time of writing, already passed; so that, if the con- 
dition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact. So forms 
implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive in 
apodosis in this construction (see e, below). 


c. In many cases the imperfect refers to past time, both in pro- 
tasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or continued action 
is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist: as, 

hic si mentis esset suze, ausus esset educere exercitum (Pis. 21), 


if he were of sane mind would he have dared to lead out the 
army ? 


59: 3.] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 169 


non concidissent, nisi illud receptaculum classibus nostris 
pateret (Verr. ii. 1), [the power of Carthage] would not 
have fallen, unless that station had been open to our fleets. 


d. The past tenses of the indicative in Apodosis (after a sub- 
junctive in Protasis) may be used to express what ought to have 
been done, or is intended, or is already begun (see § 60, 2, ¢): as, 


si Rome privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen is erat deligendus 
(Manil. 17), 7 ke [Pompey] were at this time a private citizen 
in Rome, yet he ought to be appointed. 

quod esse caput debebat, si probari posset (Fin. iv. 9), what 
ought to be the main point if it could be proved. 

si licitum esset matres. veniebant (Verr. vi. 49), ¢he mothers 
were coming tf it had been allowed. 

in amplexus filiz ruebat, nisi lictores obstitissent (Ann. xvi. 
32), he was about rushing into his daughter's arms, unless the 
lictors had opposed. : 


Remark. — In this use, the imperfect indicative corresponds in 
time to the imperfect subjunctive, and the perfect or pluperfect 
indicative to the pluperfect subjunctive (the tenses of the subjunc- 
tive may, however, be used as well; see Note, above) : as, 


satius erat (esset), 7¢ were better. 


ée. This use is regular with all verbs and expressions denoting 
the necessity, propriety, desirableness, duty, possibility, of an action 
— including the two periphrastic conjugations (see page 83)— 
where it is implied that what was necessary, &¢., has not been done. 
It is sometimes carried still further in poetry: as, 


nam nos decebat lugere (Tusc. i. 47), 7# would befit us to mourn. 
si non alium jactaret odorem, laurus erat (Georg. ii. 133), ¢# 
were a laurel, but for giving out a different odor. 


Notre.— Observe that all these expressions contain the idea of 
Futurity. Compare note. under 8. 


f. So the participle in urus with fui is equivalent to a plu- 
perfect subjunctive. Hence, when the Apodosis is itself a dependent 
clause, requiring the subjunctive, a pluperfect subjunctive may be 
represented by the Future Participle with the subjunctive of esse 
(compare apodosis in Indirect Discourse, § 67, 1, ¢): as, 


quid enim futurum fuit [= fuisset], si... (Liv. ii. 1), what 
would have happened, tf, &c. 

neque ambigitur quin ... id facturus fuerit, si... (ib.), end 
no doubt he would have done it, tf, &c. (dir. disc., fecrsset.] 

ex quo intellegi potest quam acuti natura sint, qui hec 
sine doctrina credituri fuerint (Tusc. i. 21), hence 77 may be 
understood how keen they are by nature, who, without tnstruc- 
tion, would have believed th’s. {Were the condition is con- 
tained in the words szxe doctrind. | 


170 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. © [59: 4. 


adeo parata seditio fuit, ut Othonem rapturi fuerint, ni incerta 
noctis timuissent (Tac. H. i. 26), so far advanced was the 
conspiracy, that they would have seized upon Otho, had they 
not feared the hazards of the night [in the direct discourse, 
rapuissent ni timuissent |. 


4. Future Conditions. A Future condition may either 
make a distinct supposition of a future case, the apodosis 
expressing what will be the result; or the supposition may be 
less distinct and vivid, the apodosis expressing what would be 
the result in the case supposed. 


a. If the condition is stated vividly, so as to be conceived as 
actually about to take place, the Future Indicative is used in both 
protasis and apodosis (G. 223): as, 

sanabimur si volemus (Tuse. iii. 6), we shall be healed if we 

wish. 

quod si legere aut audire voletis .... reperietis (Cat. M. 6), 

if you will read or hear, you will find. 

b. The Present subjunctive expresses a future condition less 
vividly, or as less probable, than when the future indicative is 
used (G. 224): as, 

hee si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat (Cat. 

i. 8), if thy country should thus speak with thee, ought she not 
to prevail ? 

quod si quis deus mihi largiatur... valde recusem (Cat. M. 23), 


but if some god were to grant me this, I should earnestly 
refuse. 


Remark. — The present subjunctive sometimes stands in prota. 
sis with the future in apodosis. 

c. If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that 
of the apodosis begins, the future perfect is substituted for the 
future, and the perfect subjunctive for the present: as, 


sin, cum potuero, non venero, tum erit inimicus (Att. ix. 2), 
but if I do not come when I can, he will be unfriendly. 
si non feceris, ignoscam (Fam. v.19), ¢/ you do not do it, I will 
excuse you. 
Remark. — This is a very common construction in Latin, owing 
to the tendency of tthe language to represent an action as com- 
pleted, rather than as in progress. 


d. Any form denoting future time may stand in the apodosis 
of a future condition (so the participles in dus and rus, and verbs 
of necessity, possibility, and the like): as, 


non possum istum accusare si cupiam (Verr. v. 41), J cannot 
accuse him tif I should desire. r 


59: 4, 5.] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 171 


alius finis constituendus est si prius quid maxime reprehendere 
Scipio solitus sit dixero (Lel. 16), axother limit must be set if 
I shall first state what Scipio was most wont to blame. 


e. Rarely the perfect is used (rhetorically) in apodosis with a 
present or even future in protasis, representing the conclusion as 
already accomplished: as, 


si hoc. bene fixum in animo est, vicistis (Liv. xxi. 44), ¢f this 
is well fixed in your minds, you have conquered. 

si eundem [animum] habueritis, vicimus (id. 43), ¢f you shall 
have kept the same spirit, we have conquered. 


f. Frequently the present subjunctive of a future condition 
becomes imperfect by the sequence of tenses or some other cause 
(retaining the same force relatively to past time): as, 


non poterat nisi vellet (B. C. iii. 44), was not able unless he 
_ wished. 

Cesar si peteret... non quicquam proficeret (Hor. Sat. i. 2), 
if even Cesar were to ask he would gain nothing. (Here 
the construction is not contrary to fact, but is simply sz 
petat non proficiat, thrown into past time. } 

tumulus apparuit...si luce palam iretur hostis preventurus 
erat (Liv. xxil. 24), a@ hill appeared...if they should go 
openly by light the enemy would prevent. |Independent of 
apparuit, this would be, si eatur, freventurus est, for pre- 


veniat. | 
5. General Conditions. General conditions are distin- , 
_ guished in Latin in only two cases: viz., 


~  @- Indefinite Subject. The subjunctive is used in the second 
person singular, to denote the act’of an indefinite subject (you = 
any one). Here the present Indicative of a general truth may 
stand in the apodosis (G. 225): as, 


mens prope uti ferrum est: si exerceas conteritur; nisi exer- 
ceas, rubiginem contrahit (Cato de Mor.), the mind is very 
like tron: tf you use it, tt wears away; if you don’t use it, it 
gathers rust. 

virtutem necessario gloria, etiamsi tu id non agas, consequitur 
(Tuse. i. 38), glory necessarily follows virtue, even tf that ts 
not one’s aim. 

si prohibita impune transcenderis, neque metus ultra neque 
pudor est (Ann. iii. 54), 7f you once overstep the bounds with 
impunity, there ts no fear nor shame any more. 

si cederes placabilis (Tac. Ann.), [ke was] easily appeased if 
one yielded. 


b. Repeated Action. In later writers (not in Cicero), the 
imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive are used in protasis, with the a 


o 


172 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [60: 1, 


imperfect indicative in apodosis, to state a repeated or customary 
action: as, 
accusatores, si facultas incideret, poenis adficiebantur (Ann. 
vi. 30), the accusers, whenever opportunity offered, were 
visited with punishment. 
quemcunque lictor prehendisset, tribunus mitti jubebat (Liv. 
iii. 11), whomever the lictor had seized, the tribune ordered 
to be let go. 


c- In all other cases, General Suppositions — including those 
introduced by Indefinite Relatives — take the indicative. 


60. Impttep ConpITIONs. 


In many sentences properly conditional, the sub- 
ordinate member is not expressed as a conditional 
clause ; but is stated in some other form of words, or 
is implied in the nature of the thought. 


1. Condition Disguised. The condition is often con- 
tained in some other form of words than a regular Protasis, 
in the same clause or sentence. 


a- The condition may be contained in a relative, participial, or 

other qualifying clause: as, : 

facile me paterer— vel ipso querente, vel apud Cassianos judices 
— pro Sex. Roscio dicere (Rosc. Am. 30), 7 would readily 
allow myself to speak for Roscius, 1F he, &c. 

non mihi, nisi admonito, venisset in mentem (De Or. ii. 42), 
zt would not have come into my mind, unless [I had been] 
admonished [= nisi admonitus essem]. 

nulla alia gens tanté mole cladis non obruta esset (Liv. xxii. 
54), there ts no other people that would not have been crushed 
by such a weight of disaster (i.e. IF it had been any other 
people]. 

Soka eee sine magnA spe immortalitatis, se pro patria 
offerret ad mortem (Tusce. i. 15), ”o one, without great hope 
of immortality, would ever expose himself to death for his 
country. 

quid hunc paucorum annorum accessio juvare potuisset (Lal. 
3), what good could the addition of a few years have done 
him ? [if he had had them. ] 


b. The condition may be contained in a wish, or expressed as 
a command, by the imperative or hortatory subjunctive: as, 


utinam quidem fuissem! molestus nobis non esset (Fam. xii. 
3), f wish I had been [chief]: he would not now be troubling 
us (i.e. if I had been]. 


f 


60: 1, 2.] IMPLIED CONDITIONS. 173 


roges enim Aristonem, neget (Fin. iv. 25), for ask Aristo, and 
he would deny. 

tolle hanc opinionem, luctum sustuleris (Tusce. i. 13), remove 
this notion, and you will have done away grief. 

naturam expellas furcaé, tamen usque recurret (Hor. Ep i. 10), 
drive out nature with a pitchfork, still she will ever return. 

manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria 
(Cat. M. 7), old men keep their mental powers, only let them 
keep their zeal and diligence. 

Notrr.— This usage is probably the origin of the use of the sub- 


junctive in Protasis; the subjunctive being used first, as in § 57, 3, / 


while the conditional particle is a form of an indefinite pronoun. 
c. Rarely, the condition is stated in an independent clause: as, 


rides: majore cachinno concutitur (Juv. iii. 100), you laugh: 
he shakes with louder laughter. 

de paupertate agitur: multi patientes pauperes commemor- 
antur (Tusc. iii. 24), we speak of poverty: many patient poor 
are mentioned. 


2. Condition Omitted. The condition is often wholly 
omitted, but may be inferred from the course of the argument. 


Remark. — Under this head belong all the apparently inde- 
pendent uses of the subjunctive not mentioned in § 57,2. In this 
use the perfect subjunctive is especially common, in the same sense 
as the present, referring to the immediate future; the imperfect to 
past time (not to present, as in § 57, 3). 

a. Potential Subjunctive. The present and perfect sub- 
junctive (often with forsitan or the like) are used to denote an 
action as possible; also, the second person singular of all the 
tenses, denoting an indefinite subject: as, 

hic querat quispiam (N. D. ii. 53), ere some one may ask. 

ut aliquis fortasse dixerit (Off. iii.6), as one may perhaps say. 

forsitan hec illi mirentur (Verr. v. 56), they may perchance 

marvel at these things. 

tum in lecto quoque videres susurros (Hor. Sat. ii. 8), ¢hen on 

each couch you might see whisperings. 

6. The subjunctive is used m cautious, modest, or hypothetical 
statement (conjunctivus modestie): as, 

pace tua dixerim (Mil. 38), Z would say by your leave. 

haud sciam an (De Or. i. 60), J should incline to think. 

tu velim sic existimes (Fam. xii.6), 7 would like you to think so. 

vellem adesset M. Antonius (Phii. i. 7), 7 wish Anthony were 

here (here vellem implies an impossible wish in present 
time}. 

hac erant fere que tibi nota esse vellem (Fam. xii. 5), this zs 

about what I want you to know [here vellem is simply velim 
transferred to past time on account of erat, by connection 
of tenses, and does not imply an impossible wish]. 


‘ 
™ 


Nactong., 


174 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. (60:2. 6L 


c. The Indicative of verbs signifying necessity, propriety, and 
the like, may be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either 
future or contrary to fact: as, 


longum est [sit] ea dicere, sed... (in Pison. 10), ¢# would be 
tedious to tell, &c. 

illud erat aptius, zquum cuique concedere (Fin. iv. 1), 2# would 
be more fitting to yield each one his rights. 

ipsum enim exspectare magnum fuit (Phil. ii. 40), would it 
have been a great matter to watt for himself ? 

quanto melius fuerat (Off. ili. 25), ow much better it would 
have been. 

quod contra decuit ab illo meum [corpus cremari] (Cat. M. 
whereas on the other hand mine ought to have been burnt 
him. . : 

nam nos decebat domum lugere ubi esset aliquis in lucem editus 
(Tusc. i. 48), for zt were fitting to mourn the house where a 
man has been born [but we do not]. 

nunc est bibendum... nunc Saliaribus ornare pulvinar deorum 
tempus erat dapibus sodales (Hor. Od. i. 37), i.e. #¢ would be 
time [if it were for us to do it, but it is a public act]. 


Remark. — Notice that, in this construction, the imperfect in- 
dicative refers to present time; the pluperfect to simply past time, 
like the perfect. Thus oportebat means it ought to be [now], but 
is not; oportuerat means it ought to have been, but was not. 


d. The omission of the protasis often gives rise to mixed con- 
structions: as, 


peream male si non optimum erat (Hor. Sat. ii. 1), may I 
perish if it would not be better. [Here the protasis and 
apodosis come under § 59, 3, d. Optimum erat is itself an 
apodosis with the protasis omitted. } 

quod si in hoc mundo fieri sine deo non potest, ne in sphera 
quidem eosdem motus Archimedes sine divino ingenio potu- 
isset imitari (Tusc. i. 25). [Here the protasis of Jotudsset is 
in sine divino ingenio. | 


61, ConpDITIONAL PARTICLES. 


Certain Particles implying a Condition are fol- 
lowed by the Subjunctive, but upon several different 
principles. — | 

1. Comparative Particles. The particles of compari- 
son—tamquam, quasi, guam si, acsi, utsi, velutsi, 
veluti, and poetic ceu— introduce conditional clauses, of 


61: 1, 2, 3.) CONDITIONAL PARTICLES. 175: 


which the conclusion is omitted or implied; and take the 
_ subjunctive. 


Remark.—Contrary to the English idiom, the present and 
perfect subjunctive are regularly used with these particles, except 
where the connection of tenses requires secondary tenses: as, 


tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. xii. 9), as if Asia was closed. 
tamquam si claudus sim (Plaut. Asin. 2), just as if 1 were lame. 
quasi vero non specie visa judicentur (Acad. ii. 18), as ¢f for- 
sooth visible things were not judged by their appearance. 
velut si coram adesset (B. G. i. 32), as ¢f he were there present. 
similiter facis ac si me roges (N.S. iii. 3), you do exactly as if 
you asked me. 
* gque ac Si mea negotia essent (Fam. xiii. 43), as much as tf it 
were my own business. 
ceu cetera nusquam bella forent (/En. il. 438), as if there were 
no fighting elsewhere. 
Magis quam si domi-esses (Att. vi. 4), more than tf you were 
at home. 
ac si ampullam perdidisset (Fin. iv. 12), as if he had lost the 
bottle. 


2. Concessive Particles. The particles of concession . 
— although, granting that — sometimes take the subjunctive, ( 
but under various constructions: viz., 


Quamvis and ut (except in later writers) take the hortatory 
subjunctive (§ 57, 3); licet is a verb, and is followed by an 
object-clause (§ 70, 3); etsi has the same constructions as si 
(§ 59); cum has a special construction ($ 62, 1); quanquam 
takes the indicative (59, 3, a): as, 


quamvis ipsi infantes sint, tamen... (Or. 23), however incaf- 
able themselves of speaking, yet, &c. 

ut neminem alium... rogasset (Mil. 17), even if he had asked 
no other. 

licet omnes in me terrores periculaque impendeant (Rosc. Am. 
11), though all terrors and perils should menace me. 

etsi abest maturitas (Fam. vi. 18), though ripeness of age ts 
wanting. 

etsi nihil aliud abstulissetis (Sull. 32), even if you had taken 
away nothing else. 


3. A Proviso, introduced by modo, dum, dummod6, - re- 
quires the Subjunctive: as, 


valetudo modo bona sit (Brut. 16), provided the health ts good. 
modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 30), provided [inplea- 
sure] he be not one of the herd of cattle. 


176 “SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [61: 4. 62. 


oderint dum metuant (Off. i. 28), let them hate, tf only they fear. 

dum de patris morte quereretur (Rosc. Am. 41), let the inquiry 
only be of a father’s death. 

dummodo inter me atque te murus intersit (Cat. i. 5), provided 
only the city wall is between us. 


Nore. — The Subjunctive with modo is a hortatory Subjunctive ; 
with dum and dummodo, a development from the Subjunctive in 
temporal clauses. 


4. The use of some of the more common Conditional 
Particles may be stated as follows:— 


a- Si is used for affirmative, nisi and si non for negative con- 
ditions. With nisi, the negative belongs rather to the Apodosis, 
—i.e. the conclusion is true except in the case supposed; with 
si non, the Protasis is negative, —i.e. the conclusion is limiled to 
the case supposed. (The difference is often only one of emphasis.) 
Wisi is never used if the clause has a concessive force. Ni is an 
old form, reappearing in poets and later writers, and in a few con- 
ventional phrases. Sometimes nisi si occurs. 


6. Nisi vero and nisi forte — sometimes nisi alone — regu- 
- larly introduce an objection, or exception, ironically, and take the 
Indicative. : 


c. Sive...sive (seu) introduce conditions in the form of an 
alternative. They have no peculiar construction, but may be used 
with any kind of condition, or with different kinds in the two 
branches, often also without a verb. 


d. Of the concessive particles, the compounds of si are used 
in all the forms of protasis ; quanquam regularly introduces only 
conceded facts, and hence takes the Indicative; quamvis, quan- 
tum vis, quamlibet, ut, cum, and libet, take idiomatic construc- 
tions corresponding to their original meaning. Later writers, 
however, frequently use all these particles like the compounds of 
si, connecting them with the Indicative or Subjunctive according 
to the nature of the condition. Even Cicero occasionally uses 
quanquam with the Subjunctive. 


62. Retations or TIME. 


Temporal clauses are introduced by particles which 
are almost all of relative origin; and are construed 
like other relative clauses, except where they have 
developed into special constructions. 


62: 1, 2.] RELATIONS OF TIME. 177 


Temporal Particles are the following : —ubi, ut (ut primum, 
ut semel), simul atque (simul ac or simul alone), cum 
(quom), antequam, priusquam, postquam (postedquam), 
dum, donec, quoad, quamdiu, quando. 


I. The particles ubi, ut, cum, quando, either alone 
or compounded with -cunque, are used as indefinite rela- 
tives, and have the constructions of Protasis (§ 59): as, 


cum rosam viderat, tum incipere ver arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 10), 
whenever he had seen a rose, he thought Spring was begun 
[general condition]. 

cum id malum esse negas (Tusc. ii. 12), whew you [the indi- 
vidual disputant] dexy zt to be an evil. 

cum videas eos... dolore non frangi (id. 27), when you see 
[indefinite subject] ¢kaz those are not broken by pain, &c. 

quod profecto cum me nulla vis cogeret, facere non auderem 
(Phil. v. 18), which I would surely not venture to do, as long 
as no force compelled me [supposition contrary to fact]. 

id ubi dixisset, hastam in fines eorum emittebat (Liv. i. 32), 
when he had satd this, he {used to] cast the spear into their 
territories [repeated action]. 


Remark. —So est cum, fuit cum, &c., are used in general 
expressions like est qui, sunt qui (§ 65, 2, a). 


2. Temporal clauses of absolute time take the Indicative ; 
those of relative time, the Subjunctive. 


(For the definition of absolute and relative time, see § 58, I, 9.) 


Note. — This distinction is not made in other languages, but it 
may be made clear in the two following expressions: 1. When was 
the great fire in London? Ans. When Charles II. was king (absolute 
time). 2. When Charles II. was king (relutive time), a great fire broke 
out in London. In the first case the reign of Charles is referred to as 
an absolute fixed dute, known to the hearer; while in the second the 
time is not so fixed, but is given as relative to the event narrated by the 
main verb, which alone denotes absolute time. In this construction, the 
Subjunctive describes the time by its characteristics (as in § 65, 2), and 
thus is a branch of the Subjunctive of result. Hence this qualitative 
character of the temporal clause often reappears and occasions the 
Subjunctive, where the idea of relative time would not naturally be 
expected: as, tum, cum HABERET hec respublica Luscinos, &c.... et tum, 
cum ERANT Catones, &c. Here the former clause describes the char- 
acter of the age by its men (at a time when there were such men); in 
the latter, the individual men are present to the mind (at the time of 
the Catos, &c. Leg. Agr., ii. 24). 


a. The particles postquam (postedquam), ubi, ut (ut 
primum, ut semel), simul atque (simul ac or simul alone), 
introduce clauses of absolute time, and take the Indicative (usually d 


the narrative tenses, the perfect and the historical present): as, 
g* 


178 ~ SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [62: 2. 


milites postquam victoriam adepti sunt, nihil reliqui victis 
fecére (Sall. Cat. 11), when the armies had won the victory, 
they left nothing to the vanquished. 

Pompeius ut equitatum suum pulsum vidit, acie excessit (B. C. 
lll. 94), when Pompey saw his cavalry beaten, he left the army. 


Remark.—1. Those particles may also take the imperfect, 
denoting a continued state of things, and the pluperfect, denoting 
the result of an action completed, in the Indicative: as, 


postquam instructi utrimque stabant, duces in medium pro- 
cedunt (Liv. i. 23), when they stood in array on both sides, 
the generals advance into the midst. 

P. Africanus posteaquam bis consul et censor fuerat (Div. in 
Cc. 21), when Africanus had been (i.e. had the dignity of 
having been| ¢wzce consul and censor. 

postquam id difficilius visum est, neque facultas perficiendi 
dabatur, ad Pompeium transierunt (B. C. iii. 60), when this 
seemed too hard, and no means of effecting it were given, they 
passed over to Pompey. 

post diem quintum quam barbari iterum male pugnaverant 
(= victi sunt), legati a Boccho veniunt (Jug. 110), the fifth 
day after the barbarians were beaten the second time, envoys 
came from Bocchus. 


2 Rarely these particles denote relativé time, and take the 
Subjunctive: as, 
posteaquam maximas edificAsset ornAssetque classes (Manil. 
4), having built and equipped mighty fleets. 


6. Cum (quom), TEMPORAL, meaning when, mtreduees—both= 
} i j takes either mood, — the Indica- 
* tive of the present and perfect, the Subjunctive of the imperfect 
- and pluperfect: as, 
cum occiditur Sex. Roscius, ibidem fuerunt servi (Rosc. Am. 
61), when Roscius was slain, the slaves were on the spot. 
nempe eo [lituo] regiones direxit tum cum urbem condidit 
(Div. i. 17), he traced with it the quarters (of the sky] at the 
time he founded the city. 
cum servili bello premeretur (Manil. 11), when she [Italy] was 
. under the load of the Servile war. 
inde cum se in Italiam recepisset (id. 12), when he had returned 
thence to Italy. — 
cum incendisses cupiditatem meam ... tum discedis a nobis 
(Fam. xv. 21), while you had inflamed my eagerness, yet you 
withdrew from us. 


Note. — The Present takes the Indicative because present time is 
generally, from its very nature, defined in the mind; and it is only 
when the circumstances are described as causal or adversative (see 
below, § 65, 2, e) that the Subjunctive is used. The Perfect takes 
the Indicative as the tense of narrative, as with postquam, &c. The 
Imperfect and Pluperfect are, from their nature, fitter to denote rela- 
tive time. 


62: 2.] RELATIONS OF TIME. 179 


Remark.—1. But the imperfect and pluperfect may denote 
absolute time, and then are in the Indicative: as, 


res cum hec scribebam erat in extremum adducta discrimen 
(Fam. xii. 6), at the time I write [epistolary] the affair was 
brought into great hazard. 

quem quidem cum ex urbe pellebam, hoc providebam animo 
(Cat. iii. 7), when I was about forcing him |conative im- 
perfect] from the city, I looked forward to this. 

fulgentes gladios hostium videbant Decii cum in aciem eorum 
irruebant (Tusc. ii. 24), the Decii saw the flashing swords of 
the enemy when they rushed upon their line. 

tum cum in Asia res magnas permulti amiserant (Manil. 7), 
at that time, when many had lost great fortunes in Asia. 


2. When the clauses are inverted, so that the real temporal 
clause becomes the main clause, and vice versa, the Indicative 
must be used: as, 

dies nondur decem intercesserant, cum ille alter filius infans 

necatur (Clu. 9), tex days had not yet passed, when the other 
infant son was killed. | 

hoc facere noctu apparabant, cum matres familiz repente in 

publicum procurrerunt (B. G. vii. 26), they were preparing 
to do this by night, when the women suddenly ran out into the 
streets. 

3. With Future tenses, there is no distinction of absolute or 
relative time; and hence the Indicative is used: as, 

non dubitabo dare operam ut te videam, cum id satis commode 

facere potero (Fam. xiii. 1), 7 shall not hesitate to take pains 
to see you, when I can do tt conveniently. 

longum illud tempus cum non ero (Att. xii. 18), zhat long time 

when I shall be no more. 


In the other tenses, the distinction is of late origin: hence in 
Plautus quom always takes the Indicative except where the Sub- 
junctive is used for other reasons. 


¢. In narration antequam and priusquam — also, in late writ- 
ers, dum and donec— have the same construction as cum: as, 


antequam tuas legi litteras (Att. ii. 7), before I read your letter. 

nec ante finis fuit quam concessére (Liv. viii. 13), there was no 
end until they yielded [regular with non ante quam, &c.}. 

antequam homines nefarii de meo adventu audire potuissent, 
in Macedoniam perrexi (Planc. 41), before those evil men 
could learn of my coming, 1 arrived in Macedonia. 

nec obstitit falsis donec tempore ac spatio vanescerent (Tac. 
Ann. 1i.82), nor did he contradict the falsehoods till they died 
out through lapse of time. 


Remark. — In reference to future time, these particles take the 
present and future perfect indicative; rarely the future indica- 
tive and present subjunctive: as, 


180 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [62: 2, 


prius quam de ceteris rebus respondeo, de amicitid pauca 
dicam (Phil. ii. 1), before L reply to the rest, { will say a 
little of friendship. 

non defatigabor ante quam illorum ancipites vias percepero 
(De Or. iui. 36), J shall not weary till I have traced out their 
doubtful ways. 


In a few cases the subjunctive of protasis seems to be used: as, 


priusquam incipias consulto et ubi consulueris mature facto 
opus est (Sall. Cat. 1), before beginning you need reflection, 
and after reflecting, prompt action. 

tempestas minatur antequam surgat (Sen. Ep. 103), the storm 
threatens before tt rises. [Compare § 59, 5, a.] 


d. Dum, donec, and quoad, implying purpose, take the sub- 
¢ junctive (§ 64); otherwise, except in later writers, the indica- 
tive. Dum and dummodo, provided, take the subjunctive: as, 


| 

dum hec geruntur (B.G. i. 46), whkéle this was going on. 

donec rediit silentium fuit (Liv. xxiii. 31), there was silence 
until he returned. “ 

dum res maneant, verba fingant (Fin. v. 29), so long as the facts 
remain, let them fashion words. 

hoc feci dum licuit, intermisi quoad non licuit (Phil. iii. 13), 
I did this so long as tt was allowed, I discontinued so long as 
zt was not. 

dummodo sit polita, dum urbana, dum elegans (Brut. 82), dro- 
vided it be polished, refined, elegant. 


Remark. — With all temporal particles, the Subjunctive is often 
found, depending on other principles of construction. 


e- Cum CAUSAL or CONCESSIVE (since, while, though) takes 
i the subjunctive (often emphasized by ut, utpote, quippe, prae- 
sertim): as, 


cum solitudo...insidiarum et metfis plena sit (Fin. i. 20), 
since solitude is full of treachery and fear. 

cum primi ordines...concidissent, tamen acerrime reliqui 
resistebant (B.G. vii. 62), though the first ranks had fallen, 

still the others resisted vigorously. 

nec reprehendo: quippe cum ipse istam reprehensionem non 
fugerim (Act. x. 3), 2 do not blame it: since I myself did not 
escape that blame. 


But frequently in the sense of quod, on the ground that, it takes 
the Indicative: as, 


gratulor tibi cum tantum vales apud Dolabellam (Fam. xi. 14), 
1 congratulate you that you are so strong with Dolabella. 


_ Notr.— This causal relation is merely a variation of the idea of 
time, where the attendant circumstances are regarded as the cause. 


63: 1, 2.] CAUSE OR REASON. 181 


f- Cum... tum, signifying both ...and, usually take the 
Indicative ; but when cum approaches the sense of while or though, 
it may have the Subjunctive: as, 


cum multa non probo, tum illud in primis (Fin. i. 6), whzle 
there are many things I do not approve, there ts this in chief. 

cum res tota ficta sit pueriliter, tum ne efficit quidem quod vult 
(ib.), while the whole thing ts childishly got up, he does not 
even make his point. 


63. Cause or REASON. 


Causal clauses may take the Indicative or Subjunc- 
tive according to their construction ; the idea of Cause 
being contained not in the mood itself, but in the form 
of the argument, or the connecting particles. 
al Particl 


PUT Tit ts — 









I. The Caus 
rne.in-early: 


es quod, quia, quoniam, quand 


/y— take the Indicative: as, 





<a 
SY > ae 
a . 


quia postrema edificata est (Verr. iv. 53), because it was built 
last. 
utinam illum diem videam, cum tibi agam gratias quod me 
vivere coégisti (Att. iii. 3), O that J may see the day when I 
may thank you that you have forced me to live. 
uoniam de utilitate jam diximus, de efficiendi ratione dicamus 
(Or. Part. 26), stuce we have now spoken of [its] advantage, 
let us speak of the method of effecting tt. 
quando ita vis di bene vortant (Trin. 573), sézce you so wish, 
may the gods bless the undertaking. 
quom tua res distrahitur utinam te redisse salvam videam 
(id. 617), sénce your property ts torn in pieces, oh, that I 
may see you returned safely ! 


2. Clauses introduced by these particles, like any other 
dependent clause, take the Subjunctive of Indirect Discourse 


(see § 67, 1). 


3. A relative clause of characteristic, with its verb, in the sub- 
junctive, may have the force of a causal sentence (see § 65, 2). 


4. The particle cum, when used in a causal sense, idiomatically 
takes the Subjunctive (§ 62, 2, ¢). 


182 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [64: 1. 


64, Purpose. 


A. Finat Causes, or those expressing purpose, take the 
Subjunctive after relatives (qui = ut is), or the conjunction 
ut (uti), ix order that (negatively ut ne or ne, lest): as, 


ab aratro abduxerunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset (Fin. ii. 
4), they brought Cincinnatus from the plough, that he might 
be dictator. 

scribebat orationes quas alii dicerent (Brut. 56), ke wrote 
speeches for other men to deliver. 

huic ne ubi consisteret quidem contra te locum reliquisti 
(Quinct. 22), you have left him no ground even to make a 
stand against you. 

nihil habeo quod scribam, J have nothing to write. 

habebam quo confugerem (Fam. iv. 6), Z had [a retreat] 
whither I might flee. 

ut ne sit impune (Mil. 12), ¢hat ct be not with impunity. 

ne qua ejus adventis procul significatio fiat (B. G. vi. 29), that 
no sign of his arrival may be made at a distance. 


Remark. — Sometimes the relative or conjunction has a correl- 
ative in the main clause: as, 


legum idcirco omnes servi sumus, ut liberi esse possimus 
(Clu. 53), for this reason we are subject to the laws, that we 
may be free. 

eA causa...ne, for this reason, lest, &c. 


Note. — As ut (uti) is of relative origin, the construction with ut 
is the same as that of relatives. That with ne is perhaps, in origin, 
a hortatory subjunctive. 


a- The ablative quo (= ut eo) is used as a conjunction in final 
clauses, especially with comparatives: as, ) 


libertate usus est, quo impunius dicax esset (Quinct. 3), se 
availed himself of liberty, that he might bluster with more 
impunity. 


Compare quominus (= ut eo minus), after verbs of hinder- 
ing (§ 65, I, a). 


6. The Principal clause, upon which a final clause depends, is 
often to be supplied from the context: as, 


ac ne longum sit... jussimus (Cat. iii. 5), and, not to be 
tedious, we ordered, &c. (strictly, ‘‘ not to be tedious, I say.”’] 

sed ut ad Dionysium redeamus, ... (Tusc. v.22), but to return 
to Dionysius, &c. 

satis inconsiderati fuit, ne dicam audacis (Phil. xiii. 5), z# was 
the act of one rash enough, not to say daring. 


64:2. 65.] CONSEQUENCE OR RESULT. 183 


Remark. — To this principle belongs nedum, still less, not to 
mention that, with which the verb itself is often omitted: as, 


nedum ... salvi esse possimus (Clu. 35), much less could we 
be safe. 

nedum isti... non statim conquisituri sint aliquid sceleris et 
flagitii (Leg. Ag. ii. 35), far more will they hunt up at once 
some sort of crime and scandal. 

nedum in mari et via sit facile (Fam. xvi. 8), stzll less is tt easy 
at sea, and on a journey. 


c- Final clauses easily become the object of verbs of wishing, 
commanding, &c. (see § 70, 3). 


2. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin in 
various ways; but never (except rarely in poetry) by the 
simple Infinitive, as in English. The sentence, they came to 
seek peace, may be rendered — 


(1) venerunt ut pacem peterent... [final clause with ut]; 


(2) a qui pacem peterent [final clause with Relative]; 
: en ad petendum pacem (rare) [gerund with ad}; 
(4) 5, .._ ad petendam pacem [gerundive with ad]; 
(5) ‘ pacem petendi causa* [gerund with causa]; 
(6) ey pacis petendz causa [gerundive with causa]; 
(7) is pacem petituri [future participle (not in Cicero) ]; 
(8) ” pacem petitum [former supine]. 

* Or gratia. 


65. CoNSEQUENCE OR RESULT. 


1. Consecutive Causes, or those expressing result, 
take the Subjunctive after relatives or the conjunction ut, so 
that (negatively, ut non): as, 


nemo est tam senex, qui se annum non putet posse vivere (Cat. 
M. 7), #o one ts so old as not to think he can live a year. 

nam est innocentia affectio talis animi, quz noceat nemini 
(Tusce. iii. 8), for innocence is such a quality of mind as to do 
harm to no one. 

sunt aliz causz que plane efficiant (Top. 15), there are other 
causes, such as to bring to pass. 


Remark. —A negative result is expressed by ut non. Some- 
times, when the result implies an effect intended (not a simple pur- 
pose), ut ne or ne is used: as, 


[librum] ita corrigas ne mihi noceat (Fam. vi. 7); correct the 
buok so that it may not hurt me. 


>. 


184 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [65: 1, 2. 


hoc est ita utile ut ne plane illudamur ab accusatoribus (Rose. 
Am. 20), this ts so useful, that we are not utterly mocked by 
the accusers [7.e., only on this condition}. 
a The subjunctive with quaominus (— ut eo minus) may be 
used, to express a result, after words of hindering : as, \ 
nec ztas impedit quominus agri colendi studia teneamus (Cat. 


M. 17), zor does age prevent us from retaining an interest in 
tilling the ground. 


6. A clause of result is introduced by quin after general 
negatives, where quin is equivalent to qui (quae, quod) non; 
also after clauses denoting hindrance, resistance, doubt, and sus- 
pension of effort (when these clauses are also negative): as, 

non dubito quin, 7 do not doubt that [dubito an, / doubt whether). 

zgre (vix) abstinui quin, / hardly refrained from, &c. 

nihil impedit quin ..., there ts nothing to prevent, €c. 

abesse non potest quin (Or. 70), 7¢ cannot be but that. 

nihil est illorum quin [=quod non] ego illi dixerim (Plaut. 

Bac. iil. 9), there ts nothing of this that I have not told him. 


Remark. — The above clauses of resull easily pass into Substan- 
tive Clauses, for which see § 70, 4, g. 


2. A relative clause of Result is often used to indicate a 
characteristic of the antecedent, even where the idea of result 
can be no longer perceived. ‘This is especially common 
where the antecedent is otherwise undefined: as, 


neque enim tu is es, qui qui sis nescias (Fam. v. 12), for you 
are not such a one, as not to know who you are. 

multa dicunt que vix intelligant (Fin. iv. 1), ¢hey say many 
things suck as they hardly understand. 

paci que nihil habitura sit insidiarum semper est consulen- 
dum (Off i. 11), we must always aim ata peace which shall 
have no plots. 

unde agger comportari posset, nihil erat reliquum (B. C. ii. 
15), there was nothing left, from which an embankment could 
be put together. 


Norte. — These cases of result are to be distinguished from the In- 
definite Relative in protasis (§ 59,1). 


Such relative clauses of characteristie are used in several 
idiomatic constructions: viz.,— 

} a After general expressions of existence and non-existence, 
including questions implying a negative: as, 


erant qui Helvidium miserarentur (Ann. xvi. 29), ‘here were 
some who pitted Helvidius. 


65: 2. 66.] INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. 185 


quis est qui id non maximis efferat laudibus (Lel. 7), who 7s 
there that does not extol tt with the highest praises ? 

sunt aliz cause que plane efliciant (Top. 15), there are other 
causes which clearly effect, &c. 

* }. After unus and solus: as, 

nil admirari prope res est una solaque que possit facere et 
servare beatum (Hor. Ep.i.6), to wonder at nothing ts almost 
the sole and only thing that can make and keep one happy. 


» © After comparatives followed by quam: as, 


majores arbores cedebant quam quas ferre miles posset (Liv. 
xxviii. 5), they cut larger trees than what a soldier could 
carry. 

Canachi signa rigidiora sunt quam ut imitentur veritatem 
(Brut. 18), ¢he statues of Canachus are too stiff to represent 
nature. 

d. In expressions of restriction or proviso, introduced by 

Relatives: as, 

quod sciam, so far as I know. 

Catonis orationes, quas quidem invenerim (Brut. 17), she 
speeches of Cato, at least such as 1 have discovered. 

servus est nemo, qui modo tolerabili condicione sit servitutis 
(Cat. iv. 8), there is not a slave, at least in any tolerable con- 
dition of slavery. 

~  @. When the quality indicated is connected with the action of 
the main clause, either as Cause on account of which (since), or as 
Hindrance in spite of which (although ; compare § 62, 2, e): as, 


O virum simplicem qui nos nihil celet (Or. 69), of, guzleless 
man, who hides nothing from us! [so with ut, utpote, guipfe |. 

egomet qui sero Grecas litteras attigissem tamen complures 
Athenis dies sum commoratus (De Or. 18), Z myself, though 
I began Greek literature late, yet, &c. (lit., a man who]. 


¥ f- Dignus, indignus, aptus, idoneus, take a clause of result 
with a relative (rarely with ut); in the poets the Infinitive: as, 


idoneus qui impetret (Manil. 19), fiz to obtain. 
dignum notari (Hor. Sat. i. 3), worthy to be stigmatized. 


66. INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. 


A Relative or other subordinate clause takes the 
Subjunctive, when it expresses the thought of some 
other person than the speaker or writer, or when. it is 
an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or equivalept 
Infinitive. 


186 _ §YNTAX OF THE VERB. | [66: 1, 2. 


i. The Subjunctive is used in intermediate clauses to 
express the thought of some other person — 
a. In subordinate clauses in Indirect Discourse (see § 67, 1, b). 


b. When the clause depends upon another containing a wish, 
a command, or a question expressed indirectly, though not indirect 
discourse proper: as, 
animal sentit quid sit quod deceat (Off. i. 6), az animal feels 
what tt ts that ts fit. 
hunc sibi ex animo scrupulum, qui se dies noctesque stimulet 
ac pungat, ut evellatis postulat (Rosc. Am. 2), ke begs you to 
pluck from his heart this doubt that goads and stings him day 
and night. (Here the relative clause is not a part of the 
Purpose expressed in evedllatzs, but is an assertion made by 
the subject of Jostulat.] 
c- When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb 
of saying, or some modifier of it: as, 
nisi restituissent statuas, vehementer lis minatur (Verr. iii. 67), 
he threatens them violently unless they should restore the statues. 
[Here the main clause, ‘‘ that he will inflict punishment,” is 
contained in mzxatur.] 
prohibitio tollendi, nisi pactus esset, vim adhibebat pactioni 
(id. iv. 14), the forbidding to take away unless he came to 
terms gave force to the bargain. 
d. With a reason or an explanatory fact introduced by a rela- 
tive or by quod (rarely quia): as, 
Favonius mihi quod defendissem leviter succensuit (Att. iii. 1), 
Favonius gently chided me for my defence. 
Petus omnes libros quos pater suus reliquisset mihi donavit 
(id.), Petus presented me all the books his father had left. 
Remark. — Under this head, even what the speaker himself 
thought under other circumstances may have the subjunctive. So 
also with quod, even the verb of saying may take the subjunctive. 
To this use also belong non quia, non quod, introducing a reason 
expressly to deny it. Non quo, non quin, introduce a result clause, 
but with nearly the same meaning as non quod: as, 
pugiles ingemiscunt, non quod doleant, sed quia... (Tusc. ii. 
23), doxers groan not with pain, but, &c. 
non quia philosophia... percipi non posset (id. i. 1), zot that 
philosophy cannot be found, &c. | 
non quoniam hoc sit necesse (Verr. ii. 9), wot that this is 
necessary. 
Nore. — This usage probably originates in apodosis, the condition 
being the supposed truth of the speaker, the main subject. 


2. A clause depending upon another subjunctive clause 
(or equivalent Infinitive) will also take the subjunctive if it 
is regarded as an integral part of that clause: as, 


66:2. 67.] INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 187 


non pugnabo quominus utrum velis eligas (Div. C. 18), Z will 
not oppose your taking which you will. 

imperat, dum res adjudicetur, hominem ut asservent: cum 
judicatum sit, ad se adducant (Verr. iv. 22), he orders them 
while the affair is under judgment, to keep the man; when he 
ts judged, to bring him to him. 

etenim quis tam dissoluto animo est, qui hzc cum videat, 
tacere ac neglegere possit (Rosc. Am. 11), for who is so reck- 
less of spirit, that when he sees these things, he can keep silent 
and pass them by ? 

si tibi hoc Siculi dicerent, nonne id dicerent quod cuivis pro- 
bare deberent (Div. C. 6), ¢f the Sicilians said this to 
you, would they not say a thing which they must prove to 
everybody ? 

mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos qui sint in preeliis 
interfecti (Or. 44), zt zs the custom at Athens for those to be 
publicly eulogized who have been slain in battle. 


Nore. — The subjunctive in this use is either a Protasis or Apodosis, 
and partakes of the nature of the clause on which it depends,—or | 
at least of its original nature. In all cases except purpose and result, 
this is clearly seen. In these, the case is undoubtedly the same; as 
the Purpose has, of course, a future sense, and the Result is a branch 
of apodosis. (See “ Essay on the Latin Subjunctive,” page 27.) 

It is often difficult to distinguish between this construction and the 
preceding. Thus, in imperat ut ea fiant que opus essent, essent may 
stand for sunt, and then will be Indirect Discourse (under 1, 6); or 
it may stand for erunt, and will then be Protasis (under 2). 


67. InpirEcT Discourse. ..._/ — 


A Direct Quotation is one which gives the exact 
words of the original speaker or writer. An Indirect 
Quotation is one which adapts the original words to 
the construction of the sentence in which they are 
quoted. 


Remark. — The term Inptrect Discourses (oratio obliqua) | 
is used to designate all clauses — even single clauses in a sentence A ,, 
of different construction — which indirectly express the word or 
thought of any person other than the speaker or writer, or even 
his own under other circumstances. But it is more strictly used 
to include those cases only in which the form of Indirect Quotation 
is given to some complete proposition or citation, which may be 
extended to a narrative or address of any length, — as found in the 
Speeches of Cesar and Livy, —the form being dependent on some 
word of saying, &c., with which it is introduced. 

The term Direct Discoursk (oratio recta) includes all other 
forms of expression, whether narration, question, exclamation, or 
command, 


188 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [67: I. 


1. Indirect Narrative. Ina Declaratory Sentence in 
indirect discourse, the principal verb is in the Infinitive, and 
its subject in the Accusative. All subordinate clauses take 
the Subjunctive: as, 


esse nonnullos quorum auctoritas plurimum valeat (B.G.i.17), 
there are some, whose influence most prevails. (In direct dis- 
course, sunt nonnulli... valet.) 

nisi jurdsset, scelus se facturum [esse] arbitrabatur (Verr. i. 
47), he thought he should incur guilt, unless he should take 
the oath (direct, nist juravero. faciam). | 

Stoici negant quidquam esse bonum, nisi quod honestum sit 
(Fin. ii. 21), the Stotcs assert that nothing ts good but what 
zs right. [The verb nego is used in preference to dico with 
a negative. | 


a. Subject-Accusative. The subject of the infinitive in 
Indirect Discourse must regularly be expressed, even though it is 
wanting in the Direct (See §70, 2, d): as, 


orator sum, J am an orator ; [dicit] se esse oratorem, [he says] 
he ts an orator (see § 70, 2, d). 


But rarely, it is omitted, when it would be easily understood: as, 


ignoscere imprudentiz dixit (B.G. iv. 27), he said he Jardoned 
their rashness. 

rogavi pervenissentne Agrigentum: dixit pervenisse (Verr. iv. 
12), £ asked whether they {the curtains] kad come to Agri- 
gentum: he answered that they had, 


Remark. — After a relative, or quam (than), where the verb 
would be the same as that of the main clause, it is usually omitted, 
and its subject is attracted into the accusative: as, 


te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus meipsum commoveri (Cat. 
M.1), J susfect that you are disturbed by the same things as I. 


6. Relative Clauses. A subordinate clause merely erplana- 
tory, and containing statements which are regarded as true inde- 
pendently of the quotation, takes the Indicative. It often depends 
merely upon the feeling of the writer whether he will use the in- 
dicative or subjunctive: as, 


quis neget hzec omnia quz videmus deorum potestate admin- 
istrari (Cat. iii. 9), who can deny that all these things we see 
are ruled by the power of the gods ? 

cujus ingenio putabat ea que gesserat posse celebrari (Arch.g), 
by whose gentus he thought that those deeds which he had done 
could be celebrated. {Here the fact expressed by gue gesserat, 
though not explanatory, is felt to be true without regard te 
the quotation: gue gessisse¢ would mean, what Marius 
thought he had done. | 


67: 1.] INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 189 


RemMirk.—Some clauses introduced by relatives are really 
independent, and take the accusative and infinitive. Rarely, also, 
subordinate clauses take this construction. The infinitive con- 
struction is regularly continued after a comparative with quam: as, 


Marcellus requisivisse dicitur Archimedem illum, quem cum 
audisset interfectum permoleste tulisse (Verr. iv. 58), Mar- 
cellus is said to have sought for Archimedes, and when he 
heard that he was slain, to have been greatly distressed. 

unumquemque nostrum censent philosophi mundi esse par- 
tem, ex quo [= et ex eo] illud natura consequi (Fin. iii. 19), 
the philosophers say that each one of us is a part of the unt- 
verse, from which thts naturally follows. 

quemadmodum si non dedatur obses pro rupto se foedus habi- 
turum, sic deditam inviolatam ad suos remissurum (Liv. ii. 
13), [he says] as in case the hostage is not given up he will 
consider the treaty as broken, so tf given up he will return 
her unharmed to her friends. 

addit se prius occisum iri ab eo quam me violatum iri (Att. ii. 
20), he adds that he himself will be killed by him, before I 
shall be injured. 


The subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with quam 
(see § 70, 4, d). 

c. Conditional Sentences. In a conditional sentence, the 
Indicative in Apoposis is in any case represented by the corre- 
sponding tense of the Infinitive. The Subjunctive is represented 
by the Future Participle with fuisse for the pluperfect, and the 
Future Infinitive for the other tenses (compare the use of the par- 
ticiple in urus with fui for the pluperfect subj. p. 169). The 
Prorasis, as a dependent clause, is in all cases Subjunctive: as, 


se non defuturum [esse] pollicetur, si audacter dicere velint 
(B. C.i. 1), he promtses not to fail, if they will speak their 
minds boldly {non deéro si voletis]. 

Notre. — The future infinitive, representing the imperfect subjunc- 
tive in Protasis, is for some reason very rare, and only four or five 
examples occur in classic authors. On the contrary, the form with 
fuisse is quite common. 


d, Questions. A Question coming immediately after a verb 
of asking or the like is treated as an Indirect Question (see 
below, 2); but questions— generally rhetorical — coming in 
course of a long indirect discourse are treated like Declaratory 
Sentences: as, 


num etiam recentium injuriarum memoriam [se] deponere 
posse (B. G. i. 14], could he lay aside the memory of recent 
wrongs ? [num possum ?] 

quem signum daturum fugientibus? quem ausurum Alexandro 
succedere (Q.C. iii. 5), who will give the signal on the re- 
treat ? who will dare to succeed Alexander ? 


190 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [67: 2. 


Remark. —Generally real questions, expecting an answer 
(chietly in the second person), take the subjunctive. Questions 
asked by the dubitative subjunctive must retain the subjunctive 
(see 2, b): as, 


quid sibi vellent (B. G. i. 44), what did they want? [quid 
vultis ?] 
2. Indirect Questions. An Indirect Question takes its 
verb in the Subjunctive: as, 
quid ipse sentiam exponam (Div. i. 6), Z will explain what I 
think (direct, guid sentio}. 
id possetne fieri consuluit (id. 7), ke consulted whether it could 
be done (direct, fotestue}. ; 
quam sis audax omnes intellegere potuerunt (Rosc. Am. 31), 
all could understand how bold you are. 
doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. ii. 12), #7 ¢s of no 
account whether I suffer or not. 
incerti quidnam esset (Jug. 49), uncertain what it was. 


Remark. — An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause, 
introduced by an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, or particle), 
depending immediately on a verb, or on any expression implying 
uncertainty or doubt. 

In grammatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distin- 
guished from interrogative, as in the third example given above. 


a- The Future Indicative is represented in indirect questions 
by the participle in urus with the subjunctive of esse, — rarely by 
the simple subjunctive: as, 


prospicio qui concursus futuri sint (Div. in Cec.), Z foresee 
what throngs there will be [erunt]. ~ 

quid sit futurum cras, fuge querere (Hor. Od. i. 9), forbear to 
ask what will be on the morrow ([erit, or futurum est]. 


6. The Dubitative Subjunctive referring to future time remains 

unchanged except in tense: as, 

[queritur] utrum Carthago diruatur, an Carthaginiensibus 
reddatur (De Inv. i. 12), [the question is] shall Carthage be 
destroyed, or restored to the Carthaginians. 

nec quisquam satis certum habet, quid aut speret aut timeat 
(Liv. xxii. 7), or zs any one assured what he shall hope or 
fear. (Here the participle with sit could not be used. ] 

incerto quid peterent aut vitarent (Liv. xxviii. 36), sézce zt was 
doubtful (abl. abs.] what they should seek or shun. 


c. The Subject of an indirect question is often, in colloquial 
usage and in poetry, attracted into the main clause as Object 
(accusative of anticipation): as, 


nésti Marcellum quam tardus sit (Fam. vili. 10), you know 
how slow Marcellus is.—In like manner, 


67:2, 3) INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 191 


potestne igitur earum rerum quare futurz sint ulla esse pre- 
sensio (Div. ii. 5), can there be, then, any foreknowledge as 
to those things, why they will occur ? 


Remark. —In some cases the Object becomes Subject by a 
change of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and inter- 
rogative construction is the result: as, 


quidam szpe in parva pecunia perspiciuntur quam sint leves 
(Lel. 17), ét ts often seen, in a trifling matter of money, how 
unprincipled some people are. 

quemadmodum Pompeium oppugnarent a me indicati sunt 
(Leg. Ag. i. 2), t¢ has been shown by me in what way they 
attacked Pompey. 


d. In early Latin and poetry, questions which elsewhere would 
have the Subjunctive as indirect often have the Indicative: as, 


non reputat quid laboris est (Amph. 172), ke does not consider 
what a task it ts. 

vineam quo in agro conseri oportet sic observato (Cato R.R 6), 
in what soil a vineyard should be set you must observe thus. 


Nore. — These cases are usually considered Direct questions ; but 
they occur (as above) where the question cannot be translated as 
direct without distortion of the meaning. 


e. A few expressions properly interrogative are used idiomati- 
cally as indefinites, and do not take a subjunctive: such are nescio 
quis, &c., mirum (or nimirum) quam or quantum, immane 
quantum, &c.: as, 

qui istam nescio quam indolentiam magnopere laudant (Tusce. 


ili. 6), who greatly extol that painlessness (whatever it ts). 
mirum quantum profuit (Liv. il. 1), ¢¢ Aelped marvellously. 


f. Occasionally, a virtual indirect question is introduced by si 
in the sense of whether (like if in English) : as, 


circumfunduntur hostes, si quem aditum reperire possent 
(B. G. vi. 37), the enemy pour round [to see] tf they can find 
entrance. 

visam si domi est (Heaut. 118), J will go see tf he is at home. 


3. Indirect Commands. All Imperative forms of syeech 
take the Subjunctive in indirect discourse: as, ten 


reminisceretur veteris incommodi populi Romani (B. G. 13),/ ¢ 
remember [said he] the ancient disaster, &c. [reminiscere }. 
ne committeret ut (ib.), do not [said he] dring tt about [ne 
commiseris ]. 
ers jars faciat (id. 20), le¢ him make an end of entreaty 
ac]. 


192 


SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 


(6s. 


The following example may serve to illustrate some of the fore- 
going principles in a connected address : — 


Indirect Discourse. 


Si pacem populus Romanus 
cum Helvetiis faceret, in eam 
partem zturos atque ibi futuros 
Helvetios, ubi eos Cesar con- 
stitutsset atque esse voluisset: 
sin bello persequi Jerseveraret, 
reminisceretur et veteris incom- 
modi populi Romani, et pris- 
tine virtutis Helvetiorum. Quod 
improviso unum pagum ador- 
tus essef, cum ii qui flumen 
transissent suis auxilium ferre 
10n Jossent, ne ob eam rem aut 
sue magno opere virtuti ¢r7bue- 
ret, aut tAsos despiceret: se ita 
a patribus majoribusque szds 
didictsse, ut magis virtute quam 
dolo coutenderent, aut insidiis 
niterentur. Quare ne commit- 
teret, ut zs locus ubi coustitissent 
ex calamitate populi Romani et 
internecione exercitfiis nomen 
caperet, aut memoriam fro- 
deret. — B.G. i. 13. 


Direct Discourse. 


Si pacem populus Romanus 
cum Helvetiis faczet, in eam 
partem zbunt atque ibi erunt 
flelvetiz, ubi eos Cesar constit- 
erit atque esse voluerit: sin 
bello persequi jerseveradit, 
remintiscere finquit) et veteris 
incommodi populi Romani, et 
pristine virtutis Helvetiorum. 
Quod improviso unum pagum 
adortus es, cum ii qui flumen 
transterant suis auxilium ferre 
non Jossent, ne ob eam rem 
aut “uw magno opere virtuti 
tribuerts, aut nos despexeris: 
nos ita a patribus majoribusque 
nostris didictmus, ut magis vir- 
tute quam dolo contendamus, 
aut insidiis wztamur. Quare, 
ne commiser?s, ut hic locus ubi 
constitimus ex calamitate populi 
Romani et internecione exerci- 
tis nomen cafzat, aut memo- 


riam prodat. 


68. WisHes AND COMMANDS. 


WisHes are expressed by the Subjunctive, often 
strengthened by the particles ut, utinam, 0 si (early Latin), 
qui; the primary tenses being used in reference to future 
time, the secondary to express a hopeless wish, — the imper- 
fect in present time, the pluperfect in past (see § 57, 4). 


Remark.—A periphrasis with velim, vellem, &c., is some- 
times used (57, 4, c). 


2. ComMaANDs are expressed by the Imperative or Sub- 
junctive (§ 57, 3, 7); Pronreitions by the Subjunctive, or 
by a periphrasis with noli or cave (§ 57, 7, a). The object 
of the command is given in a purpose-clause (§ 70, 3) with 
ut or ne, except after jubeo and veto (§ 70, 2). 


Indirectly quoted, all these forms of speech take the 
Subjunctive (see § 67, 3). 


69. 70.] CLAUSES. 193 


69. Revative CLAUSES. 


1. A simple relative, merely introducing a descriptive fact, 
takes the Indicative. 


2. The Subjunctive appears more or less frequently in 
many relative clauses (which have been already treated). 
These relatives always either—(1) are general relatives of 
Protasis ; or (2) express some logical connection between the 
relative and antecedent, or (3) have no effect at all upon the 
construction. These constructions are — 


1. General or Future Conditions in Protasis ($$ 59, 60, 61). 
2 ad Final Clauses (§ 64). 
6. Consecutive Clauses (§ 65). 
c- Relatives of Characteristic (§ 65, 2). 
d. Relatives implying Cause or Hindrance (§ 65, 2, e). 
é€.- Temporal Clauses of relative time (62, 2). 
3. a. Intermediate Clauses (§ 66). 
6. Clauses in Indirect Discourse (§ 67). 


70. SwuBsTANTIVE CLAUSEs. 


A Substantive Clause is one which, like a noun, 
is the subject or object of a verb, or in apposition 
with a subject or object. | 

Remark. — The Infinitive with the Accusative, though not 
strictly a Clause, is equivalent to one, and may be treated as 
such. 

When a substantive clause is used as Subject, the verb to which 
it is subject is called Impersonal (§ 39), and its sign, in English, 
is IT; when it is used as Object, it generally follows some verb 
of knowing, &c. (§ 67, 1) or of wishing or effecting, and its sign, 
in English, is THAT, or TO (Infinitive). 

1. Classification. Substantive Clauses are of four 
kinds: —1. The Accusative with the Infinitive, denoting an 
idea as thought or spoken (§ 67, 1); 2. Indirect Questions 
(67, 2); 8. The Subjunctive with ut, ne, quo, quin, or 


9 


194 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [70: 1, 2. 


quominus, denoting purpose or result; 4. The Indicative 
with quod, denoting a fact. But the Infinitive alone may 
take the place of either 1 or 3, 


2. Accusative and Infinitive. The Accusative with 
» the Infinitive is used as the SussEer chiefly of esse or im- 
personal verbs (§ 57, 8, b); and as the Ossectr—1, Of all 
verbs and expressions of knowing, thinking, and telling (In- 
direct Discourse, § 67,1); 2. Of jubeo and veto, and rarely 
of other verbs of commanding, requesting, admonishing, and 
the like; 3. Sometimes of verbs of wishing: as, 


omnis homines summa ope niti decet (Sall. Cat. 1), ct is it- 
ting that all men strive with utmost effort. 

Labienum jugum montis adscendere jubet (id. 21), he orders 
Labienus to ascend the ridge of the hill. 

judicem esse me non doctorem volo (Or. 33), Z wish to be a 
judge, not a teacher. 

negat ullos patere portus (Liv. xxviii. 43), 4e says that no ports 
are open. 


a. After Passives. If the main verb is changed to the pas- 
sive, either (1) the Subject of the infinitive (like other objects of 
active verbs) becomes nominative, and the infinitive is retained ; or 
(2) the passive is used impersonally, and the clause retained 
as its subject. With verbs of saying, &c., the former construction 
is more common, especially in the tenses of incomplete action; 
with jubeo and veto it is always used: as, 


primi traduntur arte quadam verba vinxisse (Or. 13), they first 
are related to have joined words with a certain skill. 

jussus es renuntiari consul (Phil. ii. 32), you were under orders 
to be declared consul. 

in lautumias Syracusanas deduci imperantur (Verr. v. 27), 
they are ordered to be taken to the stone-pits of Syracuse. 

hic accusare non est situs (Sest. 44), Ze was not allowed to 
accuse. 

ceterz Illyrici legiones secutura@ sperabantur (Tac. Hist. ii. 74), 
the rest of the legions of Lllyricum were expected to follow. 

voluntaria morte interisse creditus est (Tac. H. iv. 67), ke was 
thought to have perished by voluntary death. 

nuntiatur piratarum naves esse in portu (Verr. v. 24), zt és 
told that the ships of the pirates are in port. 


b. The poets extend the use of the passive to verbs which are 
not properly verba sentiendi: as, 


colligor domine placuisse (Ov. Am. ii. 6, 61), 7¢ zs gathered 
[from this memorial] ¢hat / pleased my mistress. 


70#27°3) SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. SG 


c. Such indirect discourse may depend on any word implying 
speech or thought, though not strictly a verb of saying, &c.: as, 

eos redire jubet: se in tempore adfuturum esse (Liv. xxiv. 13), 

he orders them to return | promising | that he will be at hand 
in season. 

orantes ut urbibus saltem —jam enim agros deploratos esse — 

opem senatus ferret (id. xvi. 6), Jraying that the senate 
would bring aid to the cities —for the fields [they said] were 
already given up as lost. 

d. Verbs of promising, expecting, threatening, swearing, and 
the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse, 
contrary to the English idiom (§ 67, I, a); but sometimes a simple 
complementary infinitive: as, 

me spero liberatum [esse] metu (Tusce. ii. 27), Z ¢rust I have 

been freed from fear. 
minatur sese abire (Asin. iii. 3), ke threatens to go away. 
[Direct, abeo, J am going away. | 

ex quibus sperant se maximum fructum esse capturos (Lzl. 21), 
Jrom which they hope to gain the utmost advantage. 

quem inimicissimum futurum esse promitto ac spondeo (Mur. 
41), who I promise and warrant will be the bitterest of 
enemies. 


dolor fortitudinem se debilitaturum minatur (Tusce. v. 27), azn 
threatens to wear down fortitude. 
pollicentur obsides dare (B.G. iv. 21), they promise to give hos- 
tages [compare Greek aorist infinitive atter similar verbs. ] 
3. Clauses of Purpose. The clause with ut (nega-_~... 
tive ne), developed from PpuRPOSE, is used as the Object of 
all verbs denoting an action directed towards the future. 
Such are — 


a. Verbs of commanding, asking, admonishing, urging, and, 
in general those denoting an influence upon some one (§ 64). > ~ 
These verbs rarely take the Infinitive (except jubeo and veto, 
which take it regularly): as, 

his uti conquirerent imperavit (B.G. i. 28), ke ordered them to 


search. : 
monet ut omnes suspiciones vitet (id. 20), he warns him to 


avoid all suspicton. 

b. Verbs of wishing and the like. These take also the simple ~~ 
(nfinitive ; more commonly when the subject remains the same, less 
commonly when it is different (see 2, above): as, 

cupio ut impetret (Capt. i. 2), wish he may get it. 

cum nostri perspici cuperent (B. G. iii. 21), when our men 

wished it to be seen 


196 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [70: 3. 


mallem Cerberum metueres (Tusc. i. 6), 7 would rather you 
Seared Cerberus. 

quos non tam ulcisci studeo quam sanare (Cat. ii. 8), whom I 
do not care so much to punish as to cure. 


c. Verbs of permission, concession, and necessity. These take 
also the Infinitive: as, 


permisit ut partes faceret (De Or. ii. 90), permitted him to 
make divisions. 

vinum importari non sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), they do not allow 
wine to be imported. 

nullo se implicari negotio passus est (Lig. 3), ke suffered him- 
self to be tangled in no business. 

sint enim oportet si miseri sunt (Tusc. i. 6), they must exist, tf 
they are wretched. (Here the clause is subject of ofortet.]. 


RreMarRK.— The clause with licet (usually without ut) is 
regularly used to express a concession in the sense of although. 


d. Verbs of determining, resolving, bargaining, which also 
take the Infinitive. Those of decreeing often take the participle 
in dus, on the principle of indirect discourse: as, 


edicto ne quis injussu pugnaret (Liv. v.19), having commanded 
that none should fight without orders. 

pacto ut victorem res sequeretur (id. xxviii. 21), having bar- 
gained that the property should belong to the victor. 

Regulus captivos reddendos non censuit (Off. i. 13), Regulus 
voted that the captives should not be returned. [i.e. in giv- 
ing his opinion, captivi non reddendi sunt. | 


e. Verbs of caution and effort. Those denoting an effort to 
hinder may also take quominus or ne: as, 


cura et provide ut nequid ei desit (Att. ii. 3), zake care and see 
that he lacks nothing. 

non deterret sapientem mors quominus... (Tusc. i. 38), death 
does not deter the wise man from, &c. 

ne facerem impedivit (Fat. i. 1), Arevented me from doing. 


f. Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive, with ne affirmative 
and ne non or ut negative: as, 
ne animum offenderet verebatur (B. G. i. 19), ke feared he 
. should offend the mind, &c. 
vereor ut tibi possim concedere (De Or. i. 9), 7 fear J cannot 
grant you. , 
haud sane periculum est ne non mortem optandam putet 


(Tusc. v. 40), there ts no danger of his not thinking death 
desirable. 


Remark. — The particle ut or ne is often omitted, — generally 
after verbs of wishing, necessity, permission ; with cave, dic, fac; 
and in indirect discourse, frequently after verbs of commanding 
and the like. 


70: 4.] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 197 


g- With any verbs of the above classes, the poets may use the 
Infinitive: as, 
hortamur fari (4En. ii. 74), we exhort [him] Zo speak. 


4. Clauses of Result. The clause with ut (negative “a 
ut non, &c.), developed from RESULT, is used as the Object 
of verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort: as, 


commeatus ut portari possent efficiebat (B. G. ii. 5), he made 
it possible that supplies could be brought. (Lit., he effected 
that, &c. ] 


a. The substantive clause becomes the Subject of such verbs ~~ 
in the passive; and hence is further used as the subject of verbs 
denoting it happens, it remains, it follows, and the like; and even 
of the simple esse in the same sense, and other phrases: as, 

sequitur ut doceam (N. D. ii. 32), the next thing is to show, &c. 

accidit ut esset plena luna (B. G. iv. 29), zt chanced to be full 

moon. 

accedit ut conturber (Deiot. 1), besides this I am troubled. 

reliquum est quarta virtus ut sit ipsa frugalitas (id.), zt remains 

that the fourth virtue ts thrift. 
_ quando fuit ut quod licet, non liceret (Cel. 20), when was it 
that what ts now allowed was not allowed ? 


6. A result clause, with or without ut, frequently follows 
quam, after a comparative: as, 


_ perpessus est omnia potius quam indicaret (Tusce. i. 22), he 
endured all, rather than betray, dc. 


ec. A result clause with ut is often used elliptically, in ex- 
clamations, with or without -ne (compare § 57, 8, g): as, 
quanquam quid loquor? te ut ulla res frangat (Cat. i. 9), yet 


why do Task? that anything should bend you? 
egone ut te interpellem (Tusc. ii. 18), what, J interrupt you ? 


Remark — The infinitive, in exclamations, usually refers to 
something actually occurring; the subjunctive to something con- 
templated. 


d. The phrase tantum abest, if is so far [from being the 
case], besides a subject-clause (substantive) with ut, regularly 
takes another ut-clause (of result) depending on tantum: as, 


tantum abest ut mostra miremur, ut usque eo difficiles ac mor- 
osi simus, ut nobis non satisfaciat ipse Demosthenes (Or. 
29), so far from admiring our own matters, we are difficult 
and captious to that degree, that not Demosthenes himself 
satisfies us. {Here the first ut-clause depends directly on 
abest ; the second on ¢antum; and the third on usgue eo. | 


198 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [70: 4. 


e. The expressions facere ut, committere ut, often form a 
periphrasis for the simple verb (compare fore ut for the future 
infinitive) : as, 


invitus feci ut Flamininum e senatu eicerem (Cat. M. 12), z# 
was with reluctance that I expelled, &c. 


f. Rarely, a thought or idea is considered as a result, and 
takes the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and infini- 
tive (in this case a demonstrative usually precedes) : as, 


altera est res, ut... (Off. i. 20), the second point its that, &c. 

preclarum illud est, ut eos... amemus (Tusc. iii. 29), ¢hés zs 
a noble thing, that we should love, &c. 

que est igitur amentia, ut... what folly is there then in de- 
manding, &c. 


g- Verbs and other expressions which imply hindering and the 
like, may take quin when the main verb is negative, formally or 
virtually ($ 65, 1, 6): as, 


facere non possum quin... (Att. xii. 27), 7 cannot avoid, &c. 

nihil pretermisi quin scribam...(Q. F. iii. 3), Z have left 
nothing undone to write. 

ut nulla re impedirer quin (Att. iv. 2), that I might be hin- 
dered by nothing from, &c. 

non humana ulla neque divina obstant quin (Sall. Ep. Mith. 
17), no human or divine laws prevent, but that, &c. 


Remark. — This usage is found especially with the phrase non 
dubito and similar expressions making a kind of indirect dis- 
course: as, 


non dubitabat quin ei crederemus (Att. vi. 2), ke did not doubt 
that we believed him. 

illud cave dubites quin ego omnia faciam (Fam. v. 20), do of 
doubt that I will do all. 

quis ignorat quin (Flacc. 27), who ts ignorant that, &c. ? 

neque ambigitur quin Brutus pessimo publico id facturus fue- 
rit si priorum regum alicui regnum extorsisset (Livy, ii. 1), 
nor is there any question that Brutus, if he had wrested the 
kingdom from any one of the former kings, would have done it 
with the worst results to the state (direct discourse, fecésset]. 


h. Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of 
saying or as words of commanding, effecting and the like, and 
may be construed accordingly: as, 


sequitur illico esse causas immutabiles (Fat. 12), 7# follows 
directly that there are unalterable causes. [The regular 
construction with segzor used of a logical sequence. } 

laudem sapientiz statuo esse maximam (Div. v. 13), J hold 
that the glory of wisdom is the greatest. 


BOS’ Goda. SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 199 


statuunt ut decem milia hominum mittantur (B. G. xii. 21), 
they resolve that 10,000 men shall be sent. 

res ipsa monebat tempus esse (Att. x. 8), the thing itself warned 
that it was time [monere ut, warn to do something. 

fac mihi esse persuasum (N. D. 1. 27), suppose that Lam per- 
suaded of that [facere ut, accomplish that). 

hoc volunt persuadere non interire animos (B. G. vi. 13), they 
wish to convince that souls do not perish. 

huic persuadet uti ad hostes transeat (B. G. iii. 18), Jersuades 
him to pass over to the enemy. 


Nore. — The infinitive, with a subject, in this construction is in- 
direct discourse, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive 
sometimes found with these verbs. 


5. Indicative with quod. The clause in the Indicative 
with quod is used (more commonly as Subject) when the 
statement is regarded as a fact: as, 


alterum est. vitium, quod quidam nimis magnum studium 
conferunt (Off. i. 6), z¢ 7s another fault, that some bestow too 
much zeal, &c. [Here ut with the subjunctive could be 
used, meaning that they should, or the accusative and infin- 
itive, meaning Zo more abstractly; quod makes it a fact that 
men do, Xc. | 

inter inanimum et animal hoc maxime interest, quod animal. 
agit aliquid (Ac. ii. 12), ¢here ts this chief difference, &c., 
that an animal has an aim. 

quod rediit nobis mirabile videtur (Off. iii. 21), that he [Reg- 
ulus|-veturned seems wonderful tous. [Redisse would mean 
he should have returned. | 


a. In colloquial language, the clause with quod appears as 
an accusative of specification, corresponding to the English 
WHEREAS: as, 

- quod de domo scribis (Fam. xiv. 2), as to what you write of 
the house. 

quod mihi de nostro statu gratularis, minime miramur te tuis 

preclaris operibus letari (Att. i. §), as to your congratulat- 


ing me on our condition, no wonder you are pleased with your 
own noble works. 


b. Verbs of feeling and its expression take either quod (quia) 
or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse) : as, 
quod scribis... gaudeo(Q. F.iii.1). Zam glad that you write. 
quz perfecta esse vehementer letor (Rosc. Am. 47), 7 greatly 
rejoice that this ts finished. 
facio libenter quod eam non possum preterire (Leg. i. 24). JZ 
am glad that I cannot pass tt by. 
Remark. — Rarely, an apparent substantive clause, with miror 
and similar expressions, is introduced by si (really a Protasis) : as, 
-miror si quemquam amicum habere potuit (Lel. 15), J skould 
wonder tf he could ever have a friend. 


200 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. T7474, 2: 


71. QUESTIONS. 


Questions are introduced by Interrogative Pronouns, 
Adverbs, or Particles, and are not distinguished by 
the order of words, as in English. 

The Interrogative Particles are, an, utrum, num, and the 
enclitic -ne (see page 86). For other interrogative words, see 
list, page 49. 

i. Interrogative Particles. The enclitic -ne is used 
in questions asked for information merely ; nonne, when the 
answer yes, aud num when the answer no, is expected or im- 
plied: as, 

meministine me in senatu dicere (Cat. i. 3), do you remember 

my saying tn the senate ? 

nonne animadvertis quam multi salvi pervenerint (N. D. iii. 


37), do you not observe how many have come through safe ? 
num dubium est (Rosc. Am. 37), there zs no doubt, is there? 


Remark. — The interrogative particle is sometimes omitted: 
as, 


patere tua consilia non sentis (Cat. i. 1), do you not see that 
your plans are manifest ? 


a. In Indirect Questions, num loses its peculiar force: as, 


quero num aliter evenirent (Fat. 3). I ask whether they 
would turn out differently. 


b. The form of Indirect questions is the same as that of Direct; 
the difference being only in the verb, which regularly takes the 
subjunctive (§ 67, 2). 

Remark. —In English, indirect questions are introduced by 
interrogatives, or by the particle whether. 


c. The enclitic -ne is often added to interrogative words when 
not required: as, utrumne, numne, anne. 


d. The expressions nescio an, dubito an, and the like, incline 
to the Affirmative, — I don’t know but. 


2. Double Questions. In Double or Alternative Ques- 
tions, utrum or -ne, whether, stands in the first member; an, 
anne, or; annon, necne, or not, in the second: as, 


-utrum nescis, an pro nihilo id putas (Fam. x. 26), don’t you 
know ? or do you think nothing of it? 


92:°3,° 3) QUESTIONS. 201 


quero servosne an liberos (Rosc. Am. 27). JZ ask whether 
slaves or free. (Here servos aut liberos would mean, were 
there azy, either slaves or free. | 


Remark.—In direct questions, annon is more frequently 
found in the alternative; in indirect, necne. 

a. The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first mem- 
ber; when -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second: as, 

Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio (Manil. 19), shall J say to Ga- 

bintus or to Pompey ? 

sunt hxc tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 18), ave these your words 

or not? 

6. Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied; and an 
(anne) alone asks a question— usually with indignation or sur- 
prise: as, 

an tu miseros putas illos (Tusc. i. 7), what! do you think those 

men wretched ? 

ce. The second member may be omitted, when utrum asks a 
question to which there is no alternative: as, 

utrum in clarissimis est civibus is quem.... (Flacc. 19), zs he 

among the noblest citizens, whom, &c. 
d. The following exhibits the various forms of alternative 
questions : — 
utrum...an 
Se ees an (anne) 
-ne ve. @2 
ee eee -ne 


3. Question and Answer. As there is no word in 
Latin meaning simply yes or no, in answering a question the 
verb is generally repeated : as, 

valetne, ¢s ke well ? valet, yes (he 7s well). 

eratne tecum, was he with you ? non erat, no (he was not). 

a. An intensive or negative particle is sometimes used in 
answer to a direct question: thus immo (nay but), vero (in 
truth), or etiam (even so) may have the meaning of yes; and non 
(not), or minime (least-of-all), of no. 

6. In the answer to an alternative question, one member of 
the alternative must be repeated: as, 


tune an frater erat, was it you or your brother ? 
ego [eram], ¢¢ was J. 


Qx* 


202 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [72: 1. 


72, PARTICIPLES. 


The Participle expresses the action of the verb in 
the form of an adjective; but has a partial distinction 
of tense, and generally governs the case of its verb. 


1. Distinctions of Tense. The Present participle de- 
notes the action as not completed; the Perfect as completed ; 
the Future as still to take place. 


a. Present. The Present participle has several of the irregu- 
lar uses of the present indicative (compare § 58, 2): as, 


querenti mihi jamdiu certa res nulla veniebat in mentem 
(Fam. iv. 13), though 1 had long sought, no certain thing came 
to my mind (cf. ib. @). 

C. Flaminio restitit agrum Picentem dividenti (Cat. M. 4), ke 
resisted Flaminius while attempting to divide, &c. (ct. b). 
iens in Pompeianum bene mane hec scripsi (Att. iv. 9), Z 
write this when about going to my place at Pompei? (cf. c). 


Hence it is used in late writers to denote purpose. 


6. Perfect. The Perfect participle of a few deponent verbs 
is used nearly in the sense of a Present. Such are, regularly, 
ratus, solitus, veritus; commonly, fisus, ausus, secutus, and 
occasionally others, especially in later writers: as, 


cohortatus milites docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encouraging the men, 
he showed, &c. 

iratus dixisti (Mur. 30), you spoke in a passion. 

oblitus auspicia (Phil. i. 13), forgetting the auspices. 

insidias veritus (B. G. ii. 11), fearing ambuscade. 

imperio potitus (Liv. xxi. 2), holding the command... 

ad pugnam congressi (id. iv. 10), meeting in fight. 

rem incredibilem rati (Sall. C. 48), thinking it incredible. 


c. The present participle, wanting in the Passive, is usually 
supplied by a clause with dum or cum; rarely by the participle 
in dus: as, 


Dic, hospes, Spartz, nos te hic vidisse jacentes, 
Dum sanctis patrie legibus obsequimur. 

Tell tt. stranger, at Sparta, that we lie here obedient to our 
country’s sacred laws. [Here dum obseguimur is a transla- 
tion of the Greek srecO6uevot. | 

crucibus adfixi aut flammandi (Ann. xv. 44), crucified or set 
on fire [compare note under § 73}. 


72: 2,3.) PARTICIPLES. 203 


2. Adjective use. The present and perfect participles 
are used sometimes as attributes, nearly like adjectives: as, 


cum antiquissimam sententiam tum comprobatam (Div. i. 5), 
a view at once most ancient and approved. 
signa nunquam fere ementientia (id. 9), sigus hardly ever 

deceitful. 
auspiciis utuntur coactis (id. 15), ¢hey use forced auspices. 


a. ‘Thus they are used, like adjectives, as nouns: as, 


sibi indulgentes et corpori deservientes (Leg. i. 13), the self- 
indulgent, and slaves to the body. 

recte facta paria esse debent (Par. iii. 1), right deeds ought to 
be like in value. 

male parta male dilabuntur (Phil. ii. 27), 27 got, ll spent. 

consuetudo valentis (De Or. ii. 44), the habit of a man in health. 


b. So, also, they are connected with nouns by esse and simi- 
lar verbs: as, 

videtis ut senectus sit operosa et semper agens aliquid et 
moliens (Cat. M. 8), you see how busy old age ts, always 
aiming and trying at something. 

Gallia est omnis divisa (B. G. i. 1), all Gaul ts divided. 

locus qui nunc septus est (Liv.i. 8), the place which ts now 
enclosed. 

¢. From this adjective use arise the compound tenses of the 
passive, —the participle of completed action with the incomplete 
tenses of esse developing the idea of past time: as, 

interfectus est, ke was (or has been) killed, lit., he ts having- 
been-killed (i.e., already slain]. 

d. In the best writers (as Cicero) this participle, when used 
with the tenses of completed action, retains its proper force; but 
in later writers the two sets of tenses (as, amatus sum or fui) 
are often used indiscriminately: as, 

[leges] cum que late sunt tum vero que promulgate fuerunt 
(Sest. 25), the laws, both those which were proposed, and | 
those which were published. [The proposal ot the laws was 
a single act: hence /a¢@ sunt is a pure perfect. The Audlish- 
ing, or posting, was a continued state, which is indicated by 
promulgate, and fuerunt is the pure perfect. ] 

arma que fixa in parietibus fuerant, humi inventa sunt (Div. 
i. 34), the arms which had been fastened on the walls were 
found upon the ground. [Compare occupati sunt et fuerunt 
(Off. i. 17): the difference between this and the preceding 
is, that occupatus can be used only as an adjective. ] 


3. Predicate use. The Present and Perfect participles 
are often used as a predicate, where in English a clause 


204 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [72: 3. 


would be used to express time, cause, occasion, condition, 
concession, characteristic, manner, circumstance: as, 


vereor ne turpe sit dicere incipientem (Mil. 1), 7 fear tt may be 
a dishonor |to me] when beginning to speak. 

salutem insperantibus reddidisti (Marc. 7), you have restored 
a safety which we did not hope. 

nemo ei neganti non credidisset (Mil. 19), zo one would have 
dishbelieved him when he denied. 


Remark. — This use is especially frequent in the Ablative Ab- 
solute (see § 54, 10, b and Note). A co-ordinate clause is some- 
times compressed into a perfect participle; and a participle with 
a negative expresses the same idea which in English is given by 
without: as, 

imprudentibus nostris (B. G. v.15), while our men were not 

looking. 

miserum est nihil proficientem angi (N. D. iii. 5), ¢¢ 2s wretched 

to vex one’s self without effecting anything. 

instructos ordines in locum zquum deducit (Sall. C. 59), se 

draws up the lines, and leads them to level ground. 

ut hos transductos necaret (B. G. v. 5), that he might carry 

them over and put them to death. 


a. A noun and passive participle are often so united that the 
participle and not the noun contains the main idea (compare the 
participle in indirect discourse in Greek: G. 280): as, 


ante conditam condendamve urbem (Liv. Pref.), defore the city 
was built or building. 

illi libertatem civium Romanorum imminutam non tulerunt; 
vos vitam ereptam negligetis (Manil. 5), key did not endure 
the infringement of the citizens’ liberty; will you disregard 
the destruction of their life? 

So with opus: as, 

opus est viatico facto (Plaut. Trin.), there is need of laying in 
provision. 

maturato opus est (Livy viii. 13), there zs no need of haste. 
[Here there is no noun, as the verb is used impersonally. ] 

6. The perfect participle with habeo (rarely with other verbs) 

is almost the same in meaning as a perfect active: as, 


fidem quem habent spectatam jam et diu cognitam (Div. C. 4), 
my fidelity, which they have proved and long known. 


(Hence the perfect with have in modern languages.) 


ce. The perfect participle, with verbs of effecting, effort, or 
the like (also with volo where esse may be understood, cf. § 70, 
3, 6), expresses more forcibly the idea of the verb: as, 


_preefectos suos multi missos fecerunt (Verr. iv. 58), many dis- 
charged thetr officers. 


72: 4, 5.] | PARTICIPLES, 2U5 


hic transactum reddet omne (Capt. 345), ke will get it all done. 

me excusatum volo (Verr. i. 40), Z wish to be excused. 

d. The present participle is sometimes nearly equivalent to an 
infinitive, but expresses the action more vividly (after facio, in- 
duco, and the like, used of authors, and after verbs of sense): as, 


Xenophon facit Socratem disputantem (N. D. i. 11), Xenophon 
represents Socrates disputing. 


4. Future Participle. The Future Participle (except 
futurus and venturus) is rarely used in simple agreement 
with a noun, except by later writers. 


a. The future participle is chiefly used with esse in a peri- 
phrastic conjugation (see § 40, a): as, 

morere, Diagora, non enim in czelum adscensurus es (Tusc. i. 
46), die, for you are not likely to go to heaven. 

conclave illud ubi erat mansurus si... (Div. i. 15), chat cham- 
ber where he would have staid tf, &c. 

sperat adolescens diu se victurum (Cat. M. 19), ke young man 
hopes to live long (§ 67, 1). 

neque petiturus unquam consulatum videretur (Off. iii. 20), 
and seemed unltkely ever to seek the consulship. 


By later writers it is also used in simple agreement to express 
likelihood or purpose, or even an apodosis: as, 


cum leo regem invasurus incurreret (Q. C. viii. 1), when a 
lion rushed on to attack the king. 

rediit belli casum de integro tentaturus (Liv. xvii. 62), he re- 
turned to try the chances of war anew. 

ausus est rem plus fame habituram (Liv. ii. 10), ke dared a 
thing which would have more repute. 


[See also examples in § 59, 1, b.] 


b. With past tenses of esse, the future participle is often 
equivalent to the pluperfect subjunctive (§ 59, 3, e). 


5. Gerundive. The Gerundive, in its participial or ad- 
jective use, denotes necessity or propriety. 

a. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and per- 
fect participles, in simple agreement with a noun: as, 

fortem et conservandum virum (Mil. 38), a drave man, and ° 

worthy to be preserved. 

b. The most frequent use of the gerundive is with esse in a 

second periphrastic conjugation (§ 40, b): as, 


non agitanda res erit (Verr. vi. 70), will not the thing have to 
be agitated ? 


ry 


206 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [73: 1, 2. 


Remark. — The gerundive in this construction is passive in 
meaning. But in early Latin, and occasionally elsewhere, it is 
used impersonally, governing the accusative ; and it is regularly so 
used with utor, fruor, &c., governing the ablative (sometimes 
called the nominative of the gerund): as, 

via quam nobis ingrediendum sit (Cat. M. 2), the way we 

have to enter. 

agitandumst vigilias (Trin. 869), Z have got to stand guard. 


[Compare Greek verbal in -réoc, G, 281.] 
c- It is also used to denote purpose after verbs signifying to 
give, deliver, agree for, have, receive, undertake, demand: as, 

redemptor qui columnam illam conduxerat faciendam (Div. ii. 
21), the contractor who had undertaken to make that column 
[the regular construction with this class of verbs]. 

zedem Castoris habuit tuendam (Verr. ii. 50), ke had the 
temple of Castor to take care of. 

naves atque onera diligenter adservanda curabat (id. vi. 56), 
he took care that the ships and cargoes should be kept. 

For the Gerundive after verbs of decreeing, see § 70, 3, d. 


For the ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE, see § 54, Io, b. 


73. GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 


1. Gerund. The Gerund is a verbal noun, retaining the 
government of the verb, and modified by adverbs, but in 
grammatical construction following the same rules as nouns. 


Remark. — The use of the Gerund, in the oblique cases, cor- 
responds to the use of the Infinitive as Subject (§ 57, 8, a), its 
nominative form being found only in the impersonal use of the 
participle in dus: as, 

ars bene disserendi et vera ac falsa dijudicandi (De Or. ii. 38), 

the art of discoursing well, and distinguishing the true and 
false. (Here the verbal nouns discoursing and distinguish- 
ing, if used in the nominative, would be expressed by the 
infinitive dzsserere and dijudicare. | 

juveni parandum, seni utendum est (Sen. Ep. 36), ¢¢ 7s for the 

young to get, for the old to enjoy (compare § 51, 3, 4). 


2. Gerundive, When the gerund would have an object 
in the accusative, the Gerundive is generally used instead, 
agreeing with the noun, and in the case which the gerund 


would have had: as, 


paratiores ad omnia pericula subeunda (B. G. i. 5), reader to 
undergo all dangers. (Here subeunda agrees with fericula, 
which is itself governed by ad: the construction with the 
gerund would be, ad subeundum, &c.; ad governing the 
gerund, and the gerund governing the accusative Zericula.] 


73: 2, 3.) GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 207 


exercende memorize gratia (Off. i. 15), for the sake of training 
the memory. |Here the gerund construction would be, exer- 
cendi memoriam. | 


Remark.— The verbs utor, fruor, &. (§ 54, 6, d), are 
‘treated like verbs governing the Accusative, as they do in early 
Latin: as, 


expetuntur divitiz ad perfruendas voluptates (Off. i. 8), riches 
are sought for che enjoyment of pleasure. 


Nore. — The gerundive construction is probably the original one. 
The Participle in dus seems to have had a present passive force as in 
secundus (trom sequor), rotundus, volvenda dies (Virg.), fluiamandi 
(‘T'ac.), from which the idea of necessity was developed through that 
of futurity, as in the development of the subjunctive. Consilium urbis 
delende would thus have meant a plan of a city being destroyed [in 
process of destruction], then about to be destroyed, then to be de- 
stroyed, then a plan of destroying the city, the two words becoming 
fused together as in ub urbe condita. The gerund is simply an imper- 
sonal use of the participle, in its original present sense, retaining the 
case of its verb, as in agitandum est vigilias ; quid opus est fucto? 


3. Construction. The Gerund (if of transitive verbs. 
with a noun in government) and the Gerundive (with a noun 
in agreement) are used, in the oblique cases, in the construc- 
tions of nouns, as follows: — 


a. Genitive. The Genitive is used after nouns or adjectives 
in the constructions of the objective genitive (§ 50, 3); more 
rarely in the predicate after esse, or as a genitive of quality: as. 


neque consilii habendi neque arma capiendi spatio dato (B. G. 
iv. 14), time being given neither for forming plans nor for 
taking arms [objective genitive after sfatio|. 

ne conservandz quidem patriz causa (Off. i. 45), sot even in 
order to save the country. 

vivendi finis est optimus (Cat. M. 20), zt zs the best end of life. 

non tam commutandarum rerum quam evertendarum cupidos 
(id. ii. 1), destrous not so much of changing as of desiroying’ 
the state. 

que res evertendz reipublice solent esse (Verr. iii. 53), which 
things generally tend to the overthrow of the commonwealth. 

cognoscende antiquitatis (Ann. ii. 59), to study old times. 
[Here gratia is, by a rare construction, omitted. | 


The genitive of the Gerund is, in a few cases, used (like a noun) 
with the genitive of an object agreeing neither in gender nor 
number: as, 


ejus videndi cupidus (Ter. Hec.), eager fo see her. 
reiciendi trium judicum potestas (Inv. ii. 2), tke ower of 
challenging three jurors. 
Remark. — In the genitive, the construction of the gerund and 
gerundive are about equally common. 


208 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. (73: 3. 


b. Dative. The Dative is used after the adjectives (and 
rarely nouns) which are followed by the dative of nouns (§ 51, 6) ; 
also, in a few expressions after verbs: as, 

przesse agro colendo (Rosc. Am. 18), to take charge of tillage. 

esse solvendo, ¢o be able to pay. 

genus armorum aptum tegendis corporibus (Liv. xxxii. 10), a 

sort of armor suited to the defence of the body. 

reliqua tempora demetiendis fructibus et percipiendis accom- 

modata sunt (Cat. M. 19), the other seasons are fitted to reap 
and gather in the harvest. 

diem prestituit operi faciendo (Verr. ii. 56), ke appointed a day 

for doing the work. 
It is also used in certain phrases belonging to the civil law, after 
nouns meaning Officers, offices, elections, &c.: as, 

comitia consulibus rogandis (Div. i. 17), elections for nomin- 

ating consuls. 

triumvirum coloniis deducundis (Jug. 42), @ ¢riumvir for 

leading out colonies. 


c. Accusative. ‘The Accusative is used after the prepositions 
ad, inter, circa, ob (rarely in and ante); most frequently after 
ad, denoting purpose (compare § 72, 4): as, 

vivis non ad deponendam sed ad confirmandam audaciam 

(Cat. i. 2), you live, not to put off, but to confirm your daring. 


inter agendum (Ecl. ix. 24), while driving. 

me vocas ad scribendum (Or. 10), you call me to write. 

d. Ablative. The Ablative is used to express means or in- 
strument ; also manner (often by later writers, in a sense equiv- 
alent to the present participle) ; after comparatives ; and after the 
prepositions ab, de, ex, in, and (rarely) pro and cum: as, 

multa pollicendo persuadet (Jug. 46), ke fersuades by large 

promises. — 

his ipsis legendis (Cat. M. 7), dy reading these very things. 

nullum officium referenda gratia magis necessarium est (Off. 

i. 15), 20 duty ts more important than gratitude. 

in re gerenda versari (Cat. M. 6), to be employed in affairs. 

Latine loquendo cuivis par (Brut. 34), egual to any man in 

speaking Latin. 

nullis virtutis praeceptis tradendis (Off. i. 2), without giving 

any precepts of virtue. 

obscuram atque humilem conciendo ad se multitudinem (Liv. 

i. 8), calling to them a mean and obscure multitude. 

Remark. — The gerund is occasionally found in apposition with 
a noun: as, 

ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum (Livy, xxi. 

3), for the most widely different things obeying and com- 
manding. 

Nore. — From the ablative of manner comes the Italian and Spanish 
form of the participle, the true participle form becoming an adjective. 


74: 1, 2.] a SUPINE. 209 


74, SupiIne. 


The Supine is a verbal noun, having no distinction 
of tense or person, and is limited to two uses. 


Norr. — The Supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declension. 
The form in um is the accusative of the end of motion. ‘The form 
in u is probably dative of purpose, though possibly ablative. 


1. Former Supine. The Supine in um is used after 
verbs of motion to express the purpose of the motion; it 
governs the case of its verb, and is modified by adverbs: as, 


quid est, imusne sessum? etsi admonitum venimus te, non 
flagitatum (De Or. iii. 5), 4ow now, shall we be seated? 
though we have come to remind not to entreat you. 

nuptum collocasse (B. G. i. 18), fo establish in marriage. 

venerunt questum injurias (Liv. iii. 25), ¢key came to complain 
of wrongs. 


Remark. — The supine in um is used especially after eo; and 
with the passive infinitive iri forms the future infinitive passive 
(see § 55, 3, b, Rem.): as, 


fuére cives qui rempublicam perditum irent (Sall. C. 36), ¢here 
were citizens who went about to ruin the republic. 
~ non Graiis servitum matribus ibo (n. ii. 786), Z shall not go 
in slavery to the Grecian dames. 
si scisset se trucidatum iri (Div. ii. 9) he. [Pompey] kad 
known that he was going to be murdered. 


2. Latter Supine. The Supine in w is used only after 
a few adjectives, and the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, to de- 
note that in respect to which the quality is asserted: as, 


O rem non modo visu foedam, sed etiam auditu (Phil. ii. 25), 
a thing not only shocking to see, but even to hear of! 

quezrunt quid optimum factu sit (Verr. ii. 27), they ask what ts 
best to do. 

humanum factu aut inceptu (Andr. 236), a human thing to do 
or undertake. 

si hoc fas est dictu (Tuse. v. 13), ¢f this ts lawful to say. 


So rarely with verbs: as, 
pudet dictu (Agric. 32), zt 7s shame ¢o tell. 


Remark.— The supine in u is found especially with such 
adjectives as indicate an effect on the senses or the feelings, and 
those which denote ease, difficulty, and the like. But with facilis, 
difficilis, jucundus, the construction of ad with the gerund is 
more common. ‘The Infinitive is often used in the same significa- 
tion, by the poets, with all these adjectives. 


“L- 


210 GENERAL RULES OF SYNTAX. [75. 


1. 


oor AN fF WN 


FE 9 


R 


~ 
@ 


bh 
Or 


16. 


a7. 


18. 


19. 


20. 


21. 
22. 


23. 


24. 
25. 


75. GENERAL RULES oF SYNTAX. 


Nouns meaning the same thing agree in case: (§ 46). 


. Adjectives agree with Nouns in gender, number, and case (47). 
. Possessive Adjectives are used for the genitive, and in any 


case may have a genitive in agreement (47, 5). 


Relatives agree with their antecedents in gender and number ; 
their case depending on the construction of their clause (48). 


. A Verb agrees with its Subject in number and person (49). 


Two or more singular subjects —also collective nouns, with 
quisque and uterque—may take a plural verb (49, 1). 


. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative (49, 2). 


A Noun used to limit or define another is in the Genit1ve (50). 


. The Genitive is used to denote the author, owner, source, and 


(with adjectives) measure or quality (50, 1). 


. Words denoting a part are followed by the genitive of the 


whole to which the part belongs (50, 2). 

Certain adjectives of Quantity are used in the genitive to 
express indefinite Value (50, 1, 7). 

Many words of memory and feeling, knowledge or ignorance, 
fulness and want, — also verbals and participles used as ad- 
jectives, — govern the genitive (50, 3). 


. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting take the gen- 


itive of the charge or penalty (50, 4, 6). 
The Dartrvr is the case of the Indirect Object (51). 


. Words of likeness, fitness, nearness, service, or help are fol- 


lowed by the dative (51, 5, 6). 

Verbs meaning to favor, help, please, serve, trust, and their 
contraries, — also to believe, persuade, command, obey, envy, 
threaten, pardon, and spare, — govern the dative (51, 2, a). 

The Dative is used after esse, to be, to denote the Owner (51, 3). 

Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, 
post, pre, pro, sub, super, govern the dative (51, 2, d). 


Verbs of giving, telling, sending, and the like—and some- 
times of comparing and taking away — govern the accu- 
sative and dative (51, 1). 


The dative is used to denote the purpose or end; often with 
another dative of the person or thing affected (51, 5). 


The AccusaTIVE is the case of the Direct Object (52). 

The subject of the Infinitive mood is in the accusative (52, 4, 0). 
Time how long and Distance how far are in the accusative. 
The accusative is used adverbially, or for specification (52, 3). 


Verbs of naming, choosing, asking, and teaching govern two 
accusatives (52, 2). : 


75.] GENERAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 211 


26. The ABLATIVE is used of cause, manner, means, instrument, 
quality, specification, and price (54). 

27. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is in the ablative 
with ab (54, 4). 

28. Words denoting separation and plenty or want—also opus 
and usus signifying need — govern the ablative (54, 1). 

29. Participles denoting birth or origin govern the ablative (54, 2, a): 

30. The adjectives dignus, indignus,— with many verbals, as 

_contentus, fretus, letus, preeditus,— govern the abla- 

tive (54, 3, @; 10, a). 

31. The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and 
their compounds, govern the ablative (54, 6, d). 

32. Comparatives may take the ablative instead of quam, than. 

33. Degree of Difference is put in the ablative (54, 6, e). 

34. Time at or within which is put in the ablative (55, 1). 

35. Ablative Absolute. A Subject and Predicate in the ablative 
are used to define the time or circumstances of an action. 

36. The name of the Town where is in form like the Genitive of 
singular names in us, a, um, otherwise Dative or Ablative ; 
that whither in the Accusative, and whence in the Ablative. 

So of domus, rus (also humi, belli, militia), and many names of Islands. 

37. With other words (including names of Countries) Prepositions 
are used to denote where, whither, or whence. 

38. The Infinitive is used like a neuter noun, as the Subject or 
Object, or to complete the action of a ver (57, 8, a). 

39. The Infinitive, with subject-accusative, is regularly used after 
words of knowing, thinking, telling, and the like (57, 8, e). 

40. Yistorical Infinitive. The Infinitive is often used for 
tenses of the indicative in narration (57, 8, x). 

41. The Gerund, governing the case of its verb, or the Gerundive in 
agreement with a noun, has the construction of a verbal noun. 

42. The Supine in um is used after verbs of motion; the Supine 
in u after adjectives. 

43. The Subjunctive is used independently to denote a wish, com- 
mand, or concession (57, 2), also in doubtful questions. 

44. Relatives or Conjunctions implying purpose or result, — also 
of relative time or characteristic, — require the Subjunctive. 

45. Indirect Questions take a verb in the subjunctive (67, 2). 

46. The Subjunctive present and perfect are used in future condi- 
tions; the imperfect and pluperfect in those contrary to fact. 

47, Dependent clauses in Indirect Discourse, or in a subjunctive 
construction, take the subjunctive. 

48. In the sequence of Tenses, primary tenses are followed by 
primary, and secondary by secondary (58, Io). 


212 3 ARRANGEMENT. [76: 1, 2. 


76. ARRANGEMENT. 


In Latin the words do not follow the order of con- 
struction, yet they have a regular arrangement. This, 
however, is constantly modified for emphasis, harmony, 
and clearness. 


1. Normal Order. Regularly the subject stands first, 
followed by its modifiers ; the verb dast, preceded by the words 
which depend upon it: as, 

civis Romanus sum (zo¢ sum Romanus Civis). 


voluptates blandissimz dominz majores partes animi a vir- 
tute detorquent (Off. ii. 10). 


a. A predicate nominative, as the most important part of the 
predicate, is often placed after the copula: as, 


qui Athenis est mortuus (id. 24). 
hec ad judicandum sunt facillima (id. iii. 6). 


b. The forms of esse meaning there is, &c., often come first 
in the sentence: as, 

sunt quedam officia que aliis magis quam aliis debeantur 

(Off. i. 18). 

c. A numeral adjective, or one essential to the meaning of the 
phrase, goes before its noun; one simply descriptive commonly 
follows: as, 

omnes homines decet. 

est viri magni rebus agitatis punire sontes (Off. i. 24). 

omnis actio vacare debet temeritate et neglegentia (id. 29). 

cum aliqua perturbatione (id. i. 38). 

Lelius et sapiens et amicitie gloria excellens (Lzl. 1). 

d. A Demonstrative pronoun precedes the noun, Relatives stand 
first in their sentence or clause, Adverbs stand directly before the 
word they qualify. 


2. Emphasis. Inversion of the above order gives em- 
phasis. 
a. Particularly the verb comes first and the subject last. This 
mikes either or both emphatic: as, 
dicebat idem C. Curio (Off. ii. 17). 
b. Any word closely connected with the preceding sentence 
comes first, and with the following last: as, 


ac a as iis personis quas supra dixi tertia adjungitur (Off. 
i. 32). 


716: 2531 ARRANGEMENT. 213 


objecit [Cato] ut probrum M. Nobiliori quod is in provinciam 
poétas duxisset; duxerat autem consul ille in 4Etoliam ut 
scimus Ennium (Tusc. i. 2). 
maxime perturbantur officia in amicitiis; quibus et non tri- 
buere quod recte possis, et tribuere quod non sit equum, 
contra officium est (Off. iii. 10). 
c.- A word or phrase inserted between the parts of compound 
tenses becomes emphatic: as, 
ille reprehensus a multis est (N. D. ii. 38). 
d. A modifier of a noun and adjective or participle is often 
placed between them. So in the gerundive construction: as, 


de communi hominum memoria (Tuse. i. 24). 
de uno imperatore contra predones constituendo (Manil. 17). 


e. Sometimes a noun and its attribute are separated as far as 
possible, so as to include less important words: as, 

objurgationes etiam nonnunquam incidunt necessarie (Off. 

1. 38). 

f. One pair of ideas is set off against another, either in the 
same order or in exactly the opposite order. The latter, which 
is very common, is called chiasmus from the Greek X on account 
of the cross arrangement. Thus, 


rerum copia verborum copiam gignit (De Or. ili. 3, 31). 

pro vita hominis nisi hominis vita reddatur (B. G. vi. 16). 

leges supplicio improbos afficiunt, defendunt ac tuentur bonos 
(Fin. iii. 3). 

non igitur utilitatem amicitia, sed utilitas amicitiam consecuta 
est (Lzl. 14). [Here the arrangement of cases only is 
chiastic, that of ideas is regular.] 

g- Different forms of the same word are often placed together, 


also words from the same root. 

h. A favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by 
which the attribute of one pair comes between the parts of the 
other. This is often joined with chiasmus: as, 


et superjecto pavide natarunt equore dame (H. Od. i. 2, 11). 
arma nondum expiatis uncta cruoribus (id. ii. I, 5). 


3. Special Rules. 


a. Prepositions regularly precede their nouns (except tenus 
and versus), but they are often placed between a noun and ad- 
jective: as, 

quem ad modum; quam ob rem; magno cum metu; omnibus 

cum copiis; nulla in re. 


214 ARRANGEMENT. (762 374. 


b. Itaque regularly comes first in its sentence, or clause; 
enim, autem, vero, quoque, never first, but usually second, 
sometimes third if the second word is emphatic; quidem never 
first, but after the emphatic word: ne... quidem include the 
emphatic word or words. 


c. Inquam, inquit, &., credo, opinor, quaeso, used par- 
enthetically, always follow one or more words. 


d. The negative precedes the word it especially affects ; but if 
it belongs to no one word, it begins the sentence. 


4. Structure. Latin expresses the relation of words to 
each other by inflection, rather than by position, like modern 
languages. Hence its structure not only admits of great 
variety in the arrangement of words, but is especially favor- 
able to that form of sentence which is called a Period. Ina 
period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a whole, and 
is held in suspense till the delivery of the last word, which 
usually expresses the main action or motive. 

An English sentence does not often admit this form of 
structure. It was imitated, sometimes with great skill and 
beauty, by many of the early writers of English prose; but 
its effect is better seen in poetry, in such a passage as the 
following : — 

‘“‘ High on a throne of royal state, which far 
Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind, 
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand 
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, 


Satan exalted sat.*’ 
Paradise Lost, Book II. 1-5. 


PART THIRD. 


RULES OF VERSE (PROSODY). 


77. Detieue 


1. The Poetry of the ancients was not composed, like 
modern poetry, according to accent and rhyme; but was 
measured, like music, by the length of the syllables, or vowel 
sounds. ‘The measured flow of verse is called Rhythm. 


2. Each syllable is considered as either long or short, — 
in Quantity or length (not in Quality or sound, as we speak 
of the long or short vowel-sounds in English) ; a long syllable 
being reckoned in length equal to two short ones (see p. 3). 


Remark. — The quantity of radical or stem-syllables—as of 
short a in pater or of long a in mater — can be learned only 
by observation or practice, unless determined by the general rules 
of Quantity. Most of the rules of Prosody are only arbitrary 
rules for the purposes of memory; the syllables being long or 
short because the ancients pronounced them so. In those cases 
which cannot be conveniently grouped, the quantity is shown by 
the actual practice of the ancients, and is said to be determined by 
the authority of the Poets, —the principal means we have of learn- 
ing it. In some inscriptions, however, the long vowels are distin- 
guished in various ways, by marks over the letters, or by doubling. 

Owing to the practice of Roman poets of borrowing very 
largely from the poetry and mythology of the Greeks, numerous 
Greek words, especially proper names, make an important part 
of Latin poetry. These words are generally employed in accord- 
ance with the Greek and not the Latin laws of quantity. Where 
these vary in any important point, they will be noticed in the rules 
given below. . 


78. RuLes oF QUANTITY. 
1. General Rules. 


a. A vowel before another vowel is short: as, via, traho. 


Remark. — The aspirate h, as in the example above, is not 
reckoned as a Consonant in the rules of prosody (See § 1, 1, Note). 


216 PROSODY. [78: 1, 2. 


Exceptions. —1. In the genitive form ius (§ 16, 1, 6), i is 
long. It is, however, sometimes made short in verse. 


2. In the fifth declension (genitive and dative singular), e is 
long between two vowels: as, diéi; but is short after a consonant, 
as in fidéi. 


3. In fio (§ 37, 4), i is long except when followed by er: as, 
fio, fiebam, fiam, fieri, fierem. 

4. In the terminations ius and 6ius, a and e are long: as in 
Caius, Pompéius; also in the verb @io, and genitives in ai. 


5. In many Greek proper names, the vowel in Latin represents 
a long vowel or diphthong, and is consequently long: as, Trdés, 
Thalia, hérdas. But many Greek words are more or less Latin- 
ized in this respect as Academia, choréa. 


6. A Diphthong is long: as, foédus, cil, caélum, déinde. 

ExcrpTion. — The preposition prae in compounds is generally 
short before a vowel (as in preeustis, Ain. vii. 524). 

c. A vowel formed by contraction (crasis) is long: as i in nil 
(for nihil); currtis (genitive for curriiis). But not where the 
vowels are united by syneresis, as in pariétibus ( par-yetibus). 


d. A syllable in which a short vowel comes before two con- 
sonants or a double consonant — also before the letter j — is long: 
as, magnus, réx, péjor, 6t véntis, gaza, (but Aadhuc). But 
if the two consonants are a mute followed by 1 or r, the syllable 
is common, —that is, it may be either long or short in verse: as, 
alacris, patribus, réfluo. 

Remark. — Sometimes the y or v resulting from syneresis 
has the effect of a consonant: as, fliividriim réx (G. i. 482). 

é. In early Latin s at the end of words was not sounded, and 
hence does not make position with another consonant. In many 
other cases in the comic poets two consonants do not make posi- 
tion, especially in pronouns and particles: as, fille, iste, némpe. 

Remark. — A short syllable, made long under this rule, is said 
to be long by Position: as, in docétne. In docésne, the same 


syllable is long by the general rule (2, k, below). The rules of 
Position do not, in general, apply to final vowels. 


2. Final Syllables. 


a. Words of one syllable ending in a vowel are long: as, mé, 
tii, hi, né. 

The attached particles -né, -qué, -vé, -cé, pté, and ré- (réd-) 
are short; se- is long: as, s@cedit, exercitumqué réducit. 


78: 2.] RULES OF QUANTITY. 217 


b. Nouns of one syllable are long: as, 861, Ss (Gris), bos, vis. 
Exceptions. —c6r, fl, mél, Ss (ossis), vir, vis (gen.). 


c. Final a in words declined by cases is short, except in the 
ablative singular of the first declension; in all other words it is 
long: as, ea stellA (nominative), cum ea stella; frustra, 
voca (imperative), posted, triginta; also, qua (plural). 

EXCEPTIONS. — eid, ita, quia, puta (suppose); and, in late 
use, triginta, &c. 

d. Final e is short, except (1) in nouns of the fifth declen- 
sion; (2) in adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and 
second declension, with others of like form; (3) in the impera- 
tive singular of the second conjugation: as, nubé, ducité, fidé, 
famé (§ 11,i. 3.4*)quaré (qua ré), hddié (hoc die), moné, 
monété, saepé, saepissime. 

Exceptions. —bené, malé; feré, fermé; also (rarely), cavé, 
habé, tacé, valé, vidé; inferné, superné. 

ée. Final i is long: as in turri, fili, audi. But it is common in 
mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi; and short in nisi, quasi, citi (when 
making two syllables), and in Greek vocatives, as Alexi. 

f- Final o is common; but long in datives and ablatives; also, 
usually, in verbs. 

EXCEPTIONS. — citd, modé, ilicd, profectd, dummodd, 
imm6, egd, dud, octd. 

g- Final u is long; final y is short. 


h. Final as, es, os, are Jong; final is, us, ys are short: as, 
nefas, rupés, serv6s, honds; hostis, amiciis, Tethys. 


ExcrpTions.—as is short in Greek plural accusatives, as 
lampadas; and in anas. 

es is short in nouns of the third declension (lingual) increasing 
short: as milés (itis), obsés (idis),—-except abiés, ariés, 
pariés, pés; in the present of esse (€s, ad&s); in the preposition 
penés; and in the plural of Greek nouns. 

os is short in compos, impos; in some Greek endings, as 
barbitds; also o for later u in the second declension, as servds 
(nominative). 

is in plural cases is long, as in bonis, omnis (accusative 
plural) ; in sis, vis, velis, malis, nolis; in gratis, foris (prop- 
erly plurals) ; in the second person singular of the fourth conjuga- 
tion, as audis (where it is the stem-vowel) ; and sometimes in 
the forms in -eris (perfect subjunctive), where it was originally 


long. 10 


218 PROSODY. [78s 254. 


us is long in the genitive singular and nominative and accusa- 
tive plural of the fourth declension; and in nouns of the third 
declension having @ long in the stem: as virtiis (itis), inciis 
(fidis). 

4. Of other final syllables, those ending in a consonant, except 
c, are short: as, ad, ac, istiic, amat, amatiir. 

Exceptions. — donéc, fac, néc, sometimes hic; €n, n6n, 
quin, sin; cras, pltis; clr, par. 


3. Penultimate Syllables. 


a. Increment. A Noun is said to increase, when in 
any case it has more syllables than in the nominative 
singular. 

Thus stella is said to increase Jong in stellarum; and corpus 
to increase short in corpGris. 


Notre. — The rules of increment are purely arbitrary, as the 
syllables are long or short according to the proper quantity of the 
stem or the formative terminations. The quantity of noun stems 
appears in the schedule of the third declension (§ II, iv. 3), and that 
of terminations, under the various inflections where it is better to learn 
them. 

A Verb is said to increase, when in any part it has more 
syllables than in the stem (inclusive of the final vowel). 


Thus amo is said to increase long in amatis; and rego to 
increase short in regitis. 


The final syllable of an inflected word is called the termi- 
nation ; that immediately preceding is called the tmerement. 


' Thus, in the examples given above, the penultimate syllable is 
called the increment. In itinéribus, amavéritis, the syllables 
marked are called the first, second, and third increments of the 
noun or verb. 


b. Nouns. In the increment of Nouns and Adjectives, a 
and o are generally long; e, i, u, y, generally short (see list, 
pp. 25-27): as, aetatis, honGris, servGrum; opéris, carminis, 
murmiiris, pectidis, chlamydis. Exceptions are :— 

a:—baccar (aris), hepar (atis), jubar (aris), lar (laris), mas 
(m4ris), nectar (Aris), par (paris), sal (sdlis), vas (vadis), daps 
(dapis), fax, anthrax (acis). 

6:—neuters of third declension (except 6s, ris) ; arbor (6ris), 
scrobs (scroébis), ops (Opis). 


78: 3.] RULES OF QUANTITY. 219 


@:—Zincrements of fifth declension; heres (é€dis), lex (l€gis), 
locuples (étis), merces (€dis), plebs (plebis), quies (€tis), rex 
(régis), ver (véris). 

i:— most nouns and adjectives in ix: as, félicis, radicis : except 
filix, larix, salix (icis), nix (nivis), strix (strigis) ; also, dis 
_(ditis), glis (gliris), lis (litis), vis (vires), Quirites, Samnites. 

tii: —forms from nouns in tis: as, palidis, telliris, virtiitis ; 
also lux (licis), frux (frigis). 

c. Verbs. In the increment of Verbs (see Tables of Inflec- 
tion, pp. 66-74), the characteristic vowels are as follows : — 

Of the first conjugation 4: as, amare, amatur. 

Of the second conjugation @: as, monére, monétur. 

Of the third conjugation 6, I: as, regére, regitur. 


Of the fourth conjugation i: as, audire, auditur. 

Exc. —do and its compounds have &: as, dare, circumdabat. 
In other increments — 

a is always long: as, monearis, regamus. 


é is long in tense-endings: as, regébam, audiébar. But it is 
short before ram, rim, ro; in the future personal endings -béris, 
bére; and sometimes in the perfect -érunt (as stétéruntque 
comae, fin. ii. 774). 


i is long in forms after the analogy of the fourth conjugation: 
as, petivi, lacessitus (in others short: as, monitus); also in 
the subjunctive present of esse and velle, and (rarely) in the 
endings -rimus, -ritis; but short in the future forms amabitis, &c. 


6 is found only in imperatives, and is always long. 


ti is short in stimus, voliimus, quaesiimus; in the supine 
and its derivatives it is long: as, solittrus. 


d. Perfects and supines of two syllables lengthen the stem- 
syllable: as, jiivo, jiivi, jitum; video, vidi, visum; fiigio, 
fugi. 

Exceptions. — bibi, dédi (do), fidi (findo), scifdi (scindo), 
stéti (sto), stiti (sisto), tiili (fero);— citum (cieo), datum (do), 
itum (eo), litum (lino), quitum (queo), ratum (reor), 
riitum (ruo), satum (sero), situm (sino), statum (sto or 


sisto). In some compounds of sto, statum is found long, as 
prostatum. 


e. Reduplicated perfects shorten both syllables: as, c&cidi 
(cado), didici (disco), cécini (cano); but cécidi from 
caedo, pepédi from pédo. 


220 PROSODY. [78. 79. 


f. Forms from the same Stem retain the original quantity: as, 
amo, Aamavisti, génus, géneris. 
Exceptions. —1. b6s, lar, mas, par, pés, sal, vas —also 


arbo6s (not arbdr) — have a long vowel in the nominative from 
short stems. 


2. Nouns in or, genitive Gris, have the vowel shortened before 
the final r: as, hondr. (But this shortening is comparatively late, 
so that in Plautus and some inscriptions these nominatives are 
oiten found long.) 


3. Many verb-forms with original long vowel shorten it before 
final t: as, amét, dicerét (compare amémus), audit, fit. (The 
final syllable in t of the perfect seems to have been originally 
long, but to have been shortened under this rule.) 

g- Forms from the same Roor often vary in quantity from 
vowel-increase (see §§ 1, 3, a; 5,2; 44, 1, a); as, dico (cf. mal- 
edicus), diico (diicis), fido (perfidus), vGcis (vico), légio 
(1égo). 


h. Compounps retain the quantity of the words which com- 
pose them: as, occido (c&jo), occido (caedo), iniquus 
(aequus). Greek words compounded with zpo have o short, as 
préph6éta, prdldgus. Some Latin compounds of pro have o 
short, as prdficiscor, prdfiteor. Compounds with ne vary: as, 
néfas, négo, néqueo, néquis, nequam. So dejéro and pejéro 
from juro. 

[For the quantity of Penultimate Syllables in regular Deriva- 
tives, see § 44, pages 97-99.] 


79. FEetT. 


1. The most natural division of musical time is into inter- 
vals, consisting of either two or three equal parts, making 
what is called double or triple time; but the ancients also 
distinguished five equal parts. These intervals are in music 
called Measures; in prosody, they are called Feet. 


2. The feet most frequently employed in Latin verse con- 
sist either of two or three syllables; and may be represented 
by musical notation, as follows: — 


79.] FEET. Nd 221 


a. Or Two SYLuABLEs. 


1? 2 | oy | Pyrrhic (~~): as, bbntis. 
2. 3 | f ¥ | Trochee or Choree (" ~): as, cartis. 
3. 3 | Ef | Iambus (~ ~): as, b6nGs. 
4, 2 | if f | Spondee (" ~): as, car6s. 
6. Or Turee SYLLABLES. 
1. 2 1°99 | Dactyt(- ~~): as, astute 
2. 2 | ¥ , 4 | Anapest (" ~ ~): as, d6min6s. 
3. 4 | “ae C | Amphibrach (~ ~~): as, Amictis. 
4, 3 | 696 | Tribrach (~~~): as, hdmints. 
5. 3 | p if r | Molossus (— ~~): as, figértint (rare). 


Of three syllables, but more than three units of time. 
6. | if ¥ if | Amphimacer or Cretic (~~ ~): as, €gérant. 
ts | f f if | Bacchius (~ ~~): as, régébant. 


c. Or Four SyYLLABLEs. 


1. Choriambus (trochee, iambus) : as, déttilérant. 

2. Greater Ionic (spondee, pyrrhic): as, déjécérat. 

8. Lesser Ionic (pyrrhic, spondee): as, rétiilissént. 

4. The first, second, third, or fourth Epitritus has a short 
syllable in the first, second, third, or fourth place with three long 
syllables. 

5. The first, second, third, or fourth Peon has a long syllable 
in the first, second, third, or fourth place with three short syllables. 

6. The Proceleusmatic consists of four short syllables, as Spér- 
ibis. 

Note. — Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, 
or chant; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or music, often 
to be accompanied by measured movements or dance. But in read- 


ing, it is not usual, though it is better, to keep the strict measure of 
time ; and ofien accent is substituted for rhythm, as in English poetry. 


222 PROSODY. [79: 2-5. 80: 1. 


d. In general, feet of the same time can be substituted for 
each other, and two short syllables may stand for a long one. In 
the latter case, the long syllable is said to be resolved. 

Thus the Spondee may take the place of the dactyl or anapest, 
the Tribrach of the trochee or iambus; the Proceleusmatic, or a 
Dactyl standing for an anapest, is the resolution of a spondee. 

When a long syllable having the ictus is resolved, the ictus 
properly belongs to both the short syllables; but the accent to 
mdicate it is placed on the first: as, 

Nunc experiar | s{tne aceto | tibi cor acre in | péctore. 
i Baccu. 405. 

3. Arsis and Thesis. The accented syllable of each 

foot is called the Arsis; and the unaccented part the Thesis. 


Note.— The name Arsis meant originally the raising of the foot 
in beating time (‘‘upward beat”), and Thesis the putting down 
(“downward beat”’); but these terms came, in later use, to signify 
respectively the raising and depression of the voice. (See Mar. Vict. 
Chap. ix.) 

4. Ictus. Accent, in prosody, is called Ictus, — that is, 


the beat of the foot, as in a dance or march. 


5. Caesura. The end of a word interrupting a foot is 
called Czesura; and when this coincides with a rhetorical 
break in the sense, it is called the Ceesura of the verse. 


Notrre.— The position of the principal Cesura is important, as 
affecting the melody or rhythm. See description of verses below. 


80. ScANNING. 


1. Verse. <A single line in poetry, or a series of feet set 
in metrical order, is called a Verse (i.e. a turning back). 

To divide the verse, in reading, into its appropriate feet, 
according to the rules of quantity and versification, is called 
Scanning or Scansion (i.e. climbing, or- advance by steps). 


A verse lacking a syllable at the beginning is called Acephalous 
(headless) ; lacking a syllable at the end, it is called Catalectic 
(stopped) ; complete, Acatalectic. Sometimes a verse appears to 
have a superfluous syllable, and is then called Hypercatalectic. 

The word Verse (versus, a turning) is opposed to Prose (pror- 
sus or pro-versus, straight ahead). 


80: 2-5. 81.] SCANNING: METRE. 223 


2. Elision. In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end 
of a word (unless an interjection) — sometimes even at the 
end of a verse —is dropped, when the next word begins with 
a vowel or with h. ‘This is called Synaleepha (smearing), or 
Elision (druising); or, at the end of a verse, Synapheia 
(binding). 

A final m, with the preceding vowel, is dropped in like manner: 
this is called Ecthlipsis. (Hence a final syllable in m is said to 
have no quantity of its own; its vowel, in any case, being either 
elided, or else made long by position.) Thus in the verse : — 


Monstrum horrendwm informe ingens-cui lumen ademptum. 
“EN. iii. 658. 


Note.— The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French 
poetry, and is sometimes adopted in English, particularly in the older 
poets: as, | 


T’ inveigle and invite th’ unwary sense. — Comus, 538. 


In early Latin poetry, a syllable ending in s was often elided, even 
before a consonant: as, 


Senio confectu’ quiescit. — Zxzzius (quoted in Cat. M. 5). 


%. Hiatus. Elision is sometimes omitted when a word 
ending in a vowel has a special emphasis, or is succeeded by 
a pause. This is called Hiatus (gaping). 


4. A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes length- 
ened before a pause: it is then said to be long by Cesura. 
(This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears 
being caused by the retention of an original long quantity.) 


Nostrorwvm obruimir, oriturque miserrima czdes.—£%. ii. 411. 


~ §. The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long 
or short (except in some forms of Anapzstic and Ionic verse). 


81. MeETRE. 


41. Metre is the regular combination of feet in verse, and 
is named from its most frequent and ruling foot: as, Dactylic, 
Iambic, Trochaic, Anapzstic, Choriambic. 


224 PROSODY. [8l. 82: 1 


Notrre.— The ruling foot, so called, always consists of a combina- 
tion of long and short syllables, and is therefore never a pyrrhic or 
spondee. 

The shorter feet (Iambus, Trochee) are counted not by single feet, 
but by pairs (dipodies), so that six lambi make a trimeter, &c. 


2. A Verse consists of a given number of feet arranged 
metrically. It is named from the number of feet (or pairs) 
it contains, as Hexameter, Trimeter. 


3. A Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite number of 
verses ranged in a fixed order. It is often called from the 
name of some poet, as Sapphic, Alcaic, Horatian. 


82. Forms or VERSE. 


1. Dactylic. The most common forms of dactylic verse 
are the Hexameter and Pentameter. 


a. Hexameter. The Hexameter, called also Heroic verse, is 
used in narrative and pastoral poetry. It consists of six feet, of 
which the last is always incomplete (a trochee or spondee), the 
fifth generally a dactyle, and the rest indifferently dactyles or 
spondees. The fifth foot is rarely a spondee, in which case the 
verse is called spondaic. The principal Cesura falls after the 
arsis (sometimes in the thesis) of the third foot or after the arsis 
of the fourth. In the last case there should be another in the third. 

The introductory verses of the Aineid, divided according to 
the foregoing rules, will be as follows, the principal Cesura in 
each verse being marked by double lines : — 


arma vilriimque ca|n6 || Trd|jz qui | primiis 4b | Gris 
Italijam fa|to prdfti|giis || La|vinziqué | vénit 
litéra, | miiltz ille | ét tér|ris || jac|tatiis ét | alto 

— vi stipé{riim sz|vze || mémd|rém Jii|ndnis Sb | iram; 
milta qué|que ét bél{16 pas|siis || dim | cdndérét | irbem, 
infér|rétqué dé|ds Latijo, |] géniis | indé Latinum, 
Alba|niqué pa|trés, || at|que alte | moenid | Rome. 


Another form of czesura is seen in the following : — 


Dis géni|ti potiljére: || téjnént médij@ Omnia | silvae. 
fin. VI. 181. 


82: 1, 2.] FORMS OF VERSE. 225 


The Hexameter verse has been illustrated in English thus: — 


‘“* Strongly it | bears us allong, || in | swelling and | limitless | billows, 
Nothing be|fore and | nothing be|hind, || but the | sky and the | ocean.” 


b. Pentameter. The Pentameter consists of five feet, and is 
used alternately with the hexameter to form the Elegiac stanza. 
It must be scanned as two half-verses, of which the latter always 
has two dactyls, and each ends in a long syllable or half-foot. 
There is no czsura; but the first half-verse must always end with 
a word: as, 

ciim siibit | illijiis tris|tissima | noctis Ij{mago 
qua mihi | sipréjmim || témpiis In | irbé fulit, 
ciim répé|td ndcitém qua | tot mihi | cara ré|liqui, 
labitir | éx dcii|lis || niinc quéqué | gutta mé|is. 
jam propé | lax A4déjrat, qua | mé dis|cédéré | Caesar 
finibis | éxtré|mz || jiissérat | Ausdni|z. 
Ov. Trist. I. Ex. 3, 1-6. 


The Elegiac Stanza has been illustrated thus : — 


‘¢In the hex|ameter | rises the | fountain’s | silvery | column, 
In the pent|ameter | aye || falling in | melody | back.” 


c. Rarely, other dactylic verses, or half-verses, combined with 
trochees or iambs, are used by the lyric poets: viz., — 


Dactylic penthemim (five half-feet) : 
arboéri|bisqué cd|mze. — Hor. Op. IV. 7. 


Dactylic tetrameter : 
cras in|géns {té|rabimiis | equér.— Op. I. 7. 


Archilochian heptameter : 
solvitur | acris hiJémps, gra|ta vicé | véris | ét Fa|voni. 
Op. I. 4. 


2. Iambic. The most common forms of Iambic verse 
are the Trimeter (Senarius), and Tetrameter (Septenarius or 
Octonartus). 


a. Trimeter. The Iambic Trimeter is the ordinary verse of 
dramatic dialogue. It consists of three measures, each containing 
a double iambus. In the first half-measure (odd places), the 
Spondee or its equivalents (anapmwst or dactyl) may be regularly 

10* 


226 PROSODY. [82: 2, 


substituted. In the comic poets, these substitutions may be made 
in any foot except the last: as, 
O licis al|mé réctor |] ét | cdeli déciis! 
qui altérna ciirjrii spatia || flam|miféro ambiens, 
illistré 14é|tis || Exséris | térris caput. 
Herc. Four. 592-94. 
hdm6 swam: hiima|ni || nihil 4 me 4]ijénim pits. 
vél mé monélre hoc || vél pércdn|tari pita. 
HEAUT. 77, 78. 
Remark. — The choliambic (lame Iambic) substitutes a trochee 
for the last Iambus: as, 


séd non vidé|miis mantice | quéd in térgo ést. 
CaATULL. XXII. 21. 


6. Tetrameter. The Iambic Tetrameter catalectic (Septen- 
arius) consists of seven iambic feet, with the same substitutions 
as the above. It is used in more lively dialogue: as, 
nam idcirco arcés|s6r, niptias | quod mz adparal|ri sénsit. 
quibiis quidém quam faci|lé pdtiérat | quiésci si hic | quiésset! 

ANDRIA, 690-91. 

The iambic tetrameter acatalectic (Octonarius) consists of eight 
full iambic feet with the same substitutions. It is also used in 
lively dialogue: as, 
hécinésthima|niim facts aiit in|cépta? hdcinést of|fictiim patris ? 
quid illiid ést? pro | déim fidém, | quid ést, s7 hdc nén cén|- 

tiiméliast ? ANDRIA, 236-7. 

c. Dimeter. The Iambic Dimeter consists of either four 
(acatalectic) or three and a half (catalectic) iambic feet. The 
former is used in combination with a longer verse, and the latter 
only in choruses: as, 

béatiis ilj]é qui prdcil | négotiis, 
iit prisca géns | mortaliim, ~ 

patérna rii|ra bibiis éx|ércét sitis, 
sdlitiis 6m|ni fendré ; 

néque éxcita|tir classicé | milés triici, 
néque horrét ijratiim maré ; 

foriimqué vi|tat, ét siipér ba civiim 
poténtid|rim limind. 

| Hor. Epon. II. 1-8. 


OF: SE 5.5: FORMS OF VERSE. 227 


quonam criién|ta Mznas, 
preecéps amojré sevo, 
rapitir quod im|poténti 
faciniis parat | firoré ? 
MEDEA, 850-53. 

3. Trochaic. The most common form of Trochaic verse 
is the Tetrameter catalectic (Septenarius), consisting of seven 
complete feet with an additional syllable. Strictly, the spon- 
dee and its resolutions can be substituted only in the even 
places; but the comic poets allow the substitution in every 
foot but the last: as, 

Itidem habét péta|sw Ac véstitiim: | tam cons{mflist | atque €go. 
sira, pés, sta tira, tonsiis, | dciili, nasiim, | vél labra, 
male, méntiim, | barba, cdlliis: | tottis! quid vér|bis Spist ? 
si térgiim ci|catricdsiim, | nzhil héc similist | similfts. 
AMPHITR. 443-46. 

4. Anapestic. Anapestic verses of various lengths are 
found in dramatic poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleus- 
matic may be substituted for the anapest: as, 

| hic homést | 6mnizvs hoémi{|nim pre|ciptids 
voliipta|tibtis gaii|dzisque an|tépdténs. 
{ta cOm|méda que | ciipio é|véniint, 
quod 4go | subit, ad séctié | s€quitir: 
ita gaii|dzis gaii|ditim sup|péditat. 
TRIN. 1115-19. 
Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric 
poets, in combination with other feet, either as whole lines or 
parts of lines: as, 
non ébiir né!que aiiréim [dimeter] 
méa rénijdét in dém6 | laciinar. 
Hor. Op. II. 18. 

5. Bacchic. The Bacchius occurs in dramatic poets 
either in verses of two feet (Dimeter) or of four (Tetram- 
eter). The long syllables may be resolved into short ones, 
and the molossus substituted: as, 

miltas rés | s{mitz in | méd cor dé vorsG, 
miiltum in cd|gitando | délorem in|dipiscor, 


228 PROSODY. | [82: 6, 7. 


Eodméet mé | cdquo ét malcéro ét dé|fEtigs : 
magistér | mihi éxér|citér ani|miis niinc ést, 
TRIN. 223-26. 
6. Cretic. Cretic feet (Amphimacer) occur in the same 
manner as the Bacchius, with the same substitutions. The 
last foot is usually incomplete: as, 
Amor Ami|ciis mihi | né fiias | inquam. 
his ég6 | de artibiis | gratiam | facio. 
nil égo is|t6s m6ror | faeecéds | mGrés. 
TRIN. 267, 293, 297. 
7. Choriambic. Choriambic feet are regularly preceded 
by a spondee or trochee, called a basis, and are followed by a 
close, consisting of one or more syllables (see below). 


a. The First or Lesser Asclepiadic verse consists of two 
choriambs preceded by a trochee (in Horace a spondee), and fol- 
lowed by an iambus (8, d). 


b. The Second or Greater Asclepiadic has three choriambs 
with the same basis and close (8, A): as, 


néc fac|ta impia fal|lacum héminiim | caélicdlis | placént. 
CATULL. XXX. 4. 


c. The Glyconic consists of one choriambus, with the same 
basis and close (8, e). 


d. The Pherecratic consists of one choriambus, with the same 
basis, and one long syllable for close (8, g). 


e. The Greater Sapphic consists of two choriambs, preceded 
by a trochaic dipody (epitritus secundus), and followed by a 
bacchius (8, c): as, 

Sepé trans filném jaciil6 | nobilis Ex pédito. 
Hor. Op. I. 8. 

f. The Lesser Sapphic consists of one choriambus, with the 
same basis and close (8, 6): as, 

intér auda|cés lipiis ér|rat Aagnds. 
Hor. Op. III. 18, 13. 


g- The Adonic consists of one choriambus, followed by a long 
syllable (8, b). 


82: 8.] FORMS OF VERSE. 229 


hh. The Phalecian consists of a basis, a choriambus, an 
iambus, and bacchius: as, 
disér|tissimé R6|mili | népdtum 
quot siint | quétqué fué|ré Mar|cé Tulli. 
CaTuL. XLIX. 1, 2. 


i. The lesser Ionic verse consists of pairs of the foot of the 
same name. 


k. Rarely other forms of choriamBic verse occur: as, for 
example — 
Aristophanic : | 
témpérat 6|ra frénis. 

Hor. Op. I. 8, 7. 
Tetrameter : 
obstipuit ; | péctdré nil | sistéré cdn|sili quit. 
ADELPHI, 613. 

8. Stanzas. The principal forms of lyric stanza, or 

strophe, are the following :— 


a. Atcaic STROPHE, consisting of four verses: the first two 
(greater Alcaic) having each a spondee (or trochee), bacchius 
and two dactyls; the third a spondee, bacchius, and two trochees, 
and the fourth into two dactyls and two trochees: as, 

justwa ac | ténacém | propdsi|ti virim 
non cilvivw ardor | prava ju|béntitim, 
non viljtis instan|tis ty|ranni, 
ménté qua|tit sdlij|da né|que aistér. 
Hor. Op. III. 3. 

b&. LessER SAPPHIC, consisting of three Lesser Sapphic verses, 

and one Adonic (see above, 7, f, g): as, 
jam satis térjris nivis at;qué dirze 
grandinis mi|sit patér ét | rubénté 
déxtéra sa|cras jactla|tiis arcés 
térrtiit tir|bem. 
Id. Op. I. 2, 1-4. 

c. GREATER SAPPHIC, consisting of a choriambic dimeter 

(7, %), and a greater Sapphic (7, e): as, 
Lydia dic | pér Omnés 
té déds 6|r6 Sybarin | cir prdpéras | Amando. 
Hor. Op. I. 8 


230 PROSODY. [82: 8. 


d. Lesser ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of single lines (mono- 
strophon), of lesser asclepiadics (7, a): as, 


Mecé|nas atavis | édité ré|gibiis 
O ét | presidium ét | dulcé déciis | méiim. 
Id. I. 1. 


e. SeconpD ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of one Glyconic (7, c), 
and one lesser Asclepiadic: as, 
Réme | principis ir|bitim 
digna|tir sttbolés | intér 4ma|bilés 
vatim | ponéré mé | chéros ; 
ét jam | dénté minis | mordéor in| vido. 
Id. Op. IV. 3, 13-16. 
f. Turrp ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of three lesser Asclepia- 
dics and one Glyconic: as, . 
audis | quo strépfti | jantia qué | némiis 
intér | pulchra satim | técta rémi|giat 
véntis | ét pdsitas | at glaciét | nivés 
puro | niminé Ju|pitér. 
Id. Op. III. 10, 5-8. 
g. Fourta ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of two lesser Asclepia- 
dics, one Pherecratic (7, d), and one Glyconic: as, 


hic bél'liim lacrim6|swm# hic mfséram | famém 
péstém|que a popilo ét | principé Cz|sare in 
_ Pérsas | Atqué Britan'nds 
véstra | motiis 4gét | précé. 
Id. Op. I. 21, 13-16. 
h. GREATER ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of single lines of 
greater asclepiadics: as, 
tii né | quesféris | sciré néfas | quém mihf quém | tibf. 
Op. I. 11, 18; IV. 10. 


4. The above forms include upwards of a hundred of the Odes 
of Horace. In the eighteen not included in these, are ten 
different kinds of stanzas, most of which are combinations of the 
verses already given. They may be briefly indicated as fol- 
lows : — 


1. Hexameter, followed by the last four feet of an hexame- 
ter. — Op. I. 7, 28; Epon. 12. 


82: 8.] FORMS OF VERSE. | 231 


. Hexameter, followed by Iambic Dimeter. — Epon. 14, 15. 
. lambie Trimeter alone. — Epon. 17. 
. Hexameter, followed by Iambic Trimeter. — Epon. 16. 
. Verse of four Lesser lonics. — Op. III. 12. 
. Hexameter with Dactylic Penthemim (five half-feet) : 
diffti|géré nijvés rédé ; int jam | gramina | campis 
arbori|biisqué c6|ma. — Op. IV. 7. 


So Or hm Co bo 


7. Tambic Trimeter; Dactylic Penthemim; Iambic Dimeter.— 
Epop. 11. 


8. Hlexameter; Iambic Dimeter; Dactylic Penthemim. —Ep. 13. 
9. Archilochian Heptameter ; Iambic Trimeter catalectic: as, 
solvitir | acris hijéms gra|ta vicé | véris | ét Fa|voni 

trahiint/qué sic|cas ma chine | carijnas. — Op. I. 4. 
10. Trochaic Dimeter and Iambic Trimeter, each imperfect: as, 
non | ébir | néque aujréum 
méa | réni|dét in | démd | laciijnar.—Op. II. 18. 
k. Other lyric poets use other combinations of the above- 
mentioned verses. 
1. Four Glyconies with one Pherecratic: as, 
Dia|nz siimiis in | fidé 
pueljle ét ptiérz injtégri: 
_ Diainam, piiérz in|tégri 
puél|laqué cana|mus.—CaTutt. 34. 
2. Sapphics, in series of single lines, closing with an 
Adonic: as, 
An magis diri tremuére Manes 
Herculem? et visum canis inferorum 
fugit abruptis trepidus catenis ? 
fallimur: late venit, ecce, vultu, 
quem tulit Poeas ; humerisque tela 
gestat, et notas populis pharetras 
Herculis heres. 
Herc. CEr. 1600-6. 
8. Sapphics followed by Glyconics, of indefinite number 
(Herc. Fur. 830-874, 875-894). 


232 PROSODY. | 83. 


83. Earty Prosopy. 


The prosody of the earlier Latin poets differs in several 
respects from that of the later. 

Nore. — Before the language was used in literature, it had become 
very much changed by the loss of final consonants and shortening of 
final syllables under the influence of accent, which was originally 
free in its position, but in Latin became limited to the penult and 
ante-penult. ‘This tendency was arrested by the study of grammar 
and by literature, but shows itself again in the Romance languages. 
In many cases this change was still in progress in the time of the 
early poets. 

a. At the end of words s was only feebly sounded, so that it 
does not make positicn with a following consonant, and is some- 
times cut off before a vowel. (This usage continues in all poets 
till Cicero’s time: see §$ 1, 2, 6; 80, 2, note.) 


6. The last syllable of any word of two syllables may be made 
short if the first is short. (This effect remained in a few words 
like puta, cavé, valé, vidé.) Thus: — 

Abést (Cist. ii.1, 12); Apiid tést (Trin. 196); sdrdr dictast (Enn. 
157); bénas (Stich. 99) ; d6mi dézque (Pseud. 37) ; démi (Mil. 194). 


c. The same effect is produced when a short monosyllable pre- 
cedes a long syllable: as, 


id st profecto (Mere. 372), rit et tYb? Exoptatum (Mil. 1orr), 
si quidem hércle (Asin. 414), quid €st sz hdc (Andria, 237). 


d. In a few isolated words position is often disregarded. Such 
are, lle, iste, Inde, tinde, némpe, ésse (?). (Scholars are not 
yet agreed upon the principle in this irregularity, or its extent.) 


Thus : — 
écquis his in edibust (Bacch. 581). 


e- In some cases the accent seems to shorten a syllable preced- 


ing it in a word of more than three syllables: as in senéctiiti, 
Syracusae. 


f- At the beginning of a verse, many syllables long by position 
stand for short ones: as, 
{dné tu (Pseud. 442); Estne consimilis (Epid. v. 1. 18). 


g. The original long quantity of many final syllables is re- 
tained. Thus:— 


83. 84.] RECKONING OF TIME. 233 


1. Final a of the first declension is often long: as, 
ne epistula quidez ulla sit in aédibus (Asin. 762). 
Pol hédie alterd jam bis detdénsa certost. 


2. Final a of the neuter plural is sometimes long (though there 
seems no etymological reason for it): as, 


Ntinc et amico prdsperabo et génid med multa bona faciam 
(Pers. 263). 

3. So also nouns in -or with long stem, either with original r 
or original s: as, 


mdéddo quom dicta in me fngerebas ddium non uxor eram 
(Asin. 927). 

{ta mz in pectore dtque corde facit amor incéndium (Mere. 590). 

atque quanto nox fuisti léngidr hoc préxuma (Amph. 548). 


4. So in nouns with vowel lengthened originally by loss of a 
consonant: as, milés, superstités. 

5. So all verb-endings in r and t, where the vowel is elsewhere 
long in inflection: as, 

régredior audisse mé (Capt. 1023); Atque ut qui fueris et qui 
nunc (Capt. 248); me néminat hec (Epid. iv. 1, 8); faciat ut sem- 
per (Poen. ii. 42); fnfuscabat, amabo (Cretics, Cist. i. 1, 21); quf 
amét (Merc. 1021); ut fit in bello capitur alter filius (Capt. 25) ; 
tibi sit ad me revisas (Truc. ii. 4, 79). 

h. The hiatus is allowed very freely, especially at a pause in the 
sense, or when there is a change of the speaker. (The extent of 
this license is still a question among scholars, but in the present 
state of texts it must sometimes be allowed.) 


84. RecKonrne or Time. 


I. Date of Year. The year was dated, in earlier times, 
by the names of the Consuls; but was afterwards reckoned 
from the building of the City (ab urbe conditd, or anno urbis 
condite), the date of which was assigned by Varro to a period 
corresponding with B.c. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce 
- Roman dates to those of the Christian era, the year of the 
city ts to be subtracted from 754: e.g. A.v.c: 691 (the year 
of Cicero’s consulship) = B.c. 638. 


254 RECKONING OF TIME. [84. 


2. The Roman Year. Before Cexsar’s reform of the 
Calendar (B.c. 46), the Roman year consisted of 355 days: 
March, May, Quintilis (July), and October having each 31 
days, February having 28, and each of the remainder 29; 
with an Intercalary month, on alternate years, inserted after 
February 23, at the discretion of the Pontifices. The “Ju- 
lian year,” by the reformed calendar, had 365 days, divided 
as at present. Every fourth year the 24th of February (vi. 
kal. Mart.) was counted twice, giving 29 days to that month: 
hence the year was called Lissextilis. The month Quintilis 
received the name Julius (July), in honor of Julius Cesar ; 
and Sextilis of Augustus (August), in honor of his successor. 

The Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adop- 
tion of the Gregorian Calendar (4.p. 1582), which omits leap-year 
once in every century. 

3. The Month. Dates, according to the Roman Calen- 
dar, are reckoned as follows :— 

a. The first day of the month was called Kalendae (Calends), 
from calare, to call,—that being the day on which the pontiffs 
publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Calata, which 
they did, originally, from actual observation. 

6. Sixteen days before the Calends, — that is, on the fifteenth 
day of March, May, July, and October, but the thirteenth of the 
other months, — were the Idus (Jdes), the day of Full Moon. 

c. Eight days (the ninth by the Roman reckoning) before the 
Ides, — that is, on the seventh day of March, May, July, and Octo- 
ber, but the fifth of the other months, — were the Nonae (Nones, 
or ninths). ' 

d. From the three points thus determined the days of the 
month were reckoned backwards (the point of departure being, 
by Roman custom, counted in the reckoning), giving the following 
rule for determining the date: — 

If the given date be Calends, add two to the number of days 
in the month preceding, —if Nones or Ides, add one to that of 
the day on which they fall,—and from the number thus ascer- 
tained subtract the given date : — thus, viii. Kal. Feb. (83—8) = 
Jan. 25;—iv. Non. Mar. (8—4)—Mar. 4;—iv. Id. Sept. 
(144—4) =Sept. 10. 


84. 85.] MEASURES OF VALUE. 235 


e- The days of the Roman month by the Julian Calendar, as 
thus ascertained, are given in the following Table : — 


' Fanuary. February. March. A pril. 

x. Kav. JAN. Kat. Fes. Kart. MARTL& Kav. APRILES 
2. 1v. Non. Jan. iv. Non. Feb. vi. Non. Mart. 1v. Non. Apr. 
3. Ml. 99 ” III. 95 ” Vv; ” ” III. 59 ” 
4 prid. ,, ” rid. ,, ” IV. 59 ” rid ,, ” 
s5- Non. JAN. on. FEB. III. yy Se ON. APRILES. 
6. vit. Id. Jan. vin. Id. Feb. rid. ,, % vir. Id. Apr. 
Pe WUT gg sy. a | meek Same ON. MARTLE Ws es 
ey Soe Vie. gp oes vit Id. Mart. Wis aan ae 

9. V- a) v- ”» Vile yy V- Pe) 
IO. IV. 55 ” IV. ” ” VI. ” ” IV. ” 9 
Ir. Ile 55 99 III. 53 99 Vv. ry) ” Tl. 53 9 
12. prid. ”» »» rid. 55.» IV. ” 39 prid. ,, ” 
13. Ipus JAN. pus FEs. ; Ul. 5. op Ipus APRILEs. 
14. xIx. Kal. Feb. xvi. Kal. Martias prid. ,,__,, xvi. Kal. Maias 
Bie MVE ee Ma ey a Ipus MARTI& 3) eee 
96 EUs soy, 56 ae xvii. Kal. Aprilis xvi. oem, alge 
17- XVI- 59 89 XIII. 35 29 XVI. rw XV. eS) 
18. XV. 45 ” XII. 59 ” XV. a XIV. > 
19- XIV- 53 ” xi. ” ” XIV. 53g XIII. ”» 
OG SME ig Be a ‘ Be oS XII. 0 2 ae 
21. XII. 99 ” IX. ” ” XII. ” xi. > » 
SP MB ee. gg, VR 5 YA XI. ea Sita x. ae be 
23- X- ” ” VII. 59 ” x. ”» 99 IX. » » 
24 IX. ” ” vi. ” ” IX. ”» 9» VIIt. ”» 9 
S85 WE oes + ag oe ~ “ fei) are ee Vil. wat ilies 
26. VII. 4 ” Iv. ” ” Vil. r,t VI. 99 ) 
27- VI. ” 99 Ill. ” . VI. ” ” V- 9 9 
28. v. ” 9 rid. ths ae Vv. 2 ” Iv. 99 ” 
an Se eee prid. Kal. Mart. IV. Ee III. aa ances 
30. III. 4, 4, in leap-year, the Ill. Robin a) eee 
31. prid. ,, 4,  vi- Kal. (24th) being prid. ,, 45 June, Sept., Nov. 
(So Aug., Dec.) counted twice.] (So May, July, Oct.) 


Nore. — Observe that a date before the Julian Reform (s.c. 45) 
is to be found not by the above, but by taking the earlier reckoning 
of the number of days in the month. 


: 85. MEASURES OF VALUE. 


1. The Money of the Romans was in early times wholly of 
copper, the unit being the As. This was nominally a pound, but 
actually somewhat less, in weight, and was divided into twelve 
unciae. In the third century B.c. the As was reduced by degrees 
to one-twelfth of its original value. At the same time silver coins 
were introduced; the Denarius—=10 Asses, and the Sestertius or 
sesterce (semis-tertius, or half-third, represented by IIS or HS = 
duo et semis) = 2} Asses. 

2. The Sestertius, being probably introduced at a time when it 
was equal in value to the original as, came to be used as the unit 
of value: hence nummus, coin, was used as equivalent to Sester- 
tius. Afterwards, by the reductions in the standard, four asses 
became equal to a sesterce. Gold was introduced later, the 
aureus being equal to 100 sesterces. 


236 MEASURES OF VALUE. [85. 


The value of these coins is seen in the following Table : — 

24 asses =1 sestertius or nummus (HS), value about 5 cents. 

IO asses or 4 sestertii=—1denarius... ,, ge tee 
1000 sestertii—1 sestertium....... ¥: te 9» $50.00. 

3. The Sestertium (probably the genitive plural of sestertius) 
was a sum of money, not a coin; the word is inflected regularly 
as a neuter noun: thus, tria sestertia—$120.00. When com- 
bined with a numeral adverb, hundreds of thousands (centena 
milia) are to be understood: thus decies sestertium (decies HS) = 
$50,000. In the statement of large sums the noun is often 
omitted: thus sexagies (Rosc. Am. ii.) signifies, sexagies [centena 
milia] sestertium (6,000,000 sesterces) = $300,000. 

4. In the statement of sums of money in cipher, a line above 
the number indicates thousands; lines at the sides also, hundred- 
thousands. Thus us. pc. = 600 sestertii ; — Hs. Dc. = 600,000 ses- 
tertii, or 600 sestertia;—us. |pc| = 60,000,000 sestertii. 


5. MEASURES OF LENGTH. 


12 unciz (zzches) =1 Roman Foot ( Zes, 11.65 English inches). 
14 Feet =1 Cubit. —24 Feet =1 Degree or Step (,gradus). 
5 Feet=1 Pace (passus).— 1000 Paces (mille fassuum) =1 Mile. 


The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet. The Ju- 
gerum, or unit of measure of land, was an area of 240 (Roman) 
feet long and 120 broad; a little less than ? of an English acre. 


6 MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 


12 unciz (ounces) = one pound (dra, about § lb. avoirdupois). 


For fractional parts of the pound, see Lexicon, art. as. The 
Talent was a Greek weight = 60 libre. 


7 MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 


12 cyathi=1r1 sextarius (nearly a pint). 

16 sextarii=1 modius (peck). 

6 sextarii—=1 congius (3 quarts, liquid measure). 
8 congii=1 amphora (6 gallons). 


SUPPLEMENT. 


— 





OUTLINE OF SYNTAX. 


I. Sussect AND PREDICATE. 


46. Nouns. — A Noun used to describe another, and 
meaning the same thing, agrees with it in Case (p. 103). 


1. When in the same part of the sentence (subject or predi- 
eate), it is called an appositive, and the use is called apposition. 


2. When used to form a predicate, with a copulative verb, it 
is called predicate nominative (or other case, as it may be). 

a. Agreement in gender and number; 6. with /ocative; c. genitive 
in agreement with possessives. 

47, ADJECTIVES agree with their nouns in gender, number, 
and case (p. 105). 

1. With two or more nouns the adjective is plural. 

2. When nouns are of different genders, an attributive adjec- 
tive agrees with the nearest. 


a. Of predicate adjectives; 6. masculine or neuter; c. abstracts 
with neuter adjectives; d, agreement by synesis; €. with appositive 
or predicate; 7. with partitive genitive. 


3. Adjectives are often used as nouns, the masculines to de- 
note men, and the feminine women (chiefly plural). 
a. Possessives; 6. Demonstratives; c. Nouns as adjectives. 


4. A neuter adjective may be used as a noun :— 

a. Use in the singular ; 6. in the plural; ¢. as appositive or predi- 
cate; d. in agreement with a clause or infinitive. 

5. Adjectives denoting source or possession may be used for 
the genitive. 

a. For genitive of personal pronouns; 6. genitive in apposition ; 
c. for objective genitive (rarely). 


6. An adjective is often used to qualify an act, having the 
force of an Adverb. 


7. When two qualities are compared, both adjectives are in 
the comparative, connected by quam. 
a. Not with magiss 0. Positives with quam. 


8. Superlatives denoting order and succession often designate 
what part of an object is meant (so medius, ceterus, &c.). 


9. Alius ...alius, &c., may be used reciprocally, or may 
imply a change of predicate as well as of subject. 


238 SUPPLEMENT. 


48. Revatives.—A Relative agrees with its antecedent 
in gender and number; but its case depends on the construc- 
tion of the clause in which it stands (p. 109). 

1. A verb takes the person of the antecedent. 

2. A relative generally agrees in gender with the appositive. 

a. Agreement in case by attraction; 6. with implied antecedent. 

3. The antecedent noun sometimes appears in both clauses ; 
usually only in the former ; sometimes it is wholly omitted. 


a. When repeated; 6. a relative clause (is or hic, antecedent; 
R., order of clauses); c. antecedent omitted; d. predicate adjective 
(superlatives); € id quod or quae res. 


4. A relative often stands at the beginning of a clause or 
sentence, where in English a demonstrative must be used. 


5. An Adverb is often equivalent to the pronoun (relative or 
demonstrative) with a preposition. 

49, Verss.— A verb agrees with its subject-nominative 
in number and person (p. 112). 


1. Two or more singular subjects take a verb in the plural. 

a. Rule for persons; 6. with disjunctives; ¢. collective nouns, 
&c.; d. action belonging to the subjects separately. 

2. The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative. 


a. Omission of personal pronoun; 0. of indefinite subject; ¢. of 
verb in certain phrases (especially of the copula). 


II. ConstTrucTIon oF CASES. 


50. Genitive.— A noun used to limit or define another, 
and not meaning the same thing, is put in the genitive (p. 113). 


1. Subjective. The Genitive is used to denote the author, 
owner, source, and (with an adjective) measure or quality. 


a. Use of possessives; 6. omission of limited noun; ¢. genitive 
in predicate ; d. with phrase or clause (instead of neuter nominative) ; 
so neuter of possessives; @. of substance; 7. instead of appositive; 

- of quality (with adjectives); #. of measure (with numerals) ; 
@ of quantity, to express value; k. with causa, &c. 


2. Partitive. Words denoting a part are followed by the 
genitive of the whole to which the part belongs. 


a. Nouns or pronouns; B, Numerals, &c.; ¢. Neuter adjectives; 
ad. Adverbs; e. Poetic use. — Remark 1. Ablative with preposition ; 
2. uterque; 3. Words meaning a whole; 4. Doubled genitive. 


3. Objective. With many nouns and adjectives implying 
action, the genitive is used to denote the object. 


a. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling; 6. Adjectives requiring 
an object of reference (1. desire, &c., 2. verbals, 8. participials) ; 


OUTLINE OF SYNTAX. 239 


c. Adjectives with genitive of specification; d@. of likeness. Use of 
prepositions in connecting nouns. 

4. After Verbs. The genitive is used as the object of several 
classes of Verbs: — 

a. Of remembering, forgetting, and reminding; 0. of accusing, con- 
demning, and acquitting ; (peculiar genitives; abl. with de); ¢. of emo- 
tion (1. pity, &c., 2. impersonals; use of infinitive); @. refert and 
interest; e. of plenty and want (potior) ; 2. Genitive with Adverbs. 


51. Dative.— The Dative is used of the object indirectly 
affected by the action of a verb (p. 121). 


1. Of Indirect Object: with Transitives. Transitive verbs, 
whose meaning permits it, take the dative of the indirect object, 
with the accusative of the direct (as of giving, telling, sending). 

a. With passive; 6. Motion with Prepositions; d. dono, &c. 


2. after Intransitives. Intransitive verbs take the da- 
tive of the indirect object only. 


a. Verbs meaning to favor, help, please, serve, trust, and their con- 
traries; also to believe, persuade, command, obey, envy, threaten, resist, 
pardon, and spare; (1. juvo, &c., with accus.; 2. dat. or ace. with 
adulor, &c.; 38. dat. or acc. according to their meaning); 0. libet, &c.; 
c. with accus. of remote; d. Compounds with ad, ante, cen, ke. 
{transitive compounds; obvius); @€. Compounds with ab, de, ex; 
jf. Impersonal use in the passive; g. Poetic use of dative. 


3. Of Possession. The Dative is used with esse and similar 
words to denote the Owner. 


Rem. — Use of habeo; a@. Compounds of esse; 6. nomen est. 





4. Of Agency. The Dative is used after some passive forms 
to denote the Agent. 

a. Gerund or gerundive; 0. perfect participle; ¢, poetic use. 

5. Of Service. The Dative is used to denote the purpose or 
end; often with another dative of the person or thing affected. 

6. Of Nearness. The Dative is used after words of fitness, 
nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites. 

a. Accusative with ad; }. Accusative with in or erga; Cc. pos- 
sessive genitive; d@. propior, &c. with acc.; é€. dat. with verbals. 

7. Of Reference. The Dative is often required not by any 
particular word, but by the general meaning of the sentence. 

a. Instead of possessive genitive; 0. relations of direction; Cc. of 
volens, nolens; d. Ethical Dative (ablative with pro). 

52. Accusative. — The Accusative denotes that which is 
immediately affected by the action of the verb. 


1. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object. 
a. With verbs of feeling; 6. Cognate Accusative; ¢. with verbs 


of sensation; d. of motion (compounds); @. Constructio pragnans ; 
F. Impersonals, decet, &c. 


, 240 SUPPLEMENT. 


2. Two Accusatives. Several verbs take a second accusa- 
tive, either in apposition or as a secondary object. 


a. Verbs of naming, choosing, &c.; 6. Compounds with preposi- 
tions; c. Verbs of asking and teaching (passive use); d. celo, lateo. 

3. Adverbial Accusative. The accusative is used adver- 
bially, or for specification. 

b. Accusative of neuter pronoun or adjective; 6, Adverbial 
phrases; c. Greek accusative: passive used reflexively. 

4. Special Uses :— 

a. Exclamations; 6. as subject of Infinitive; c. Duration of 
Time and extent of Space. 

53. Vocative. — The Vocative is the form of direct 
Address (p. 134). 


a. Nominative with Imperative; 6. Vocative of adjective. 


54, ABLATIVE. — The Ablative is used to denote the rela- 
tions expressed in English by the prepositions from, 1n, at, 
with, by (p. 134). 

1. Separation. Verbs meaning to remove, set free, be absent, 
deprive, and want, are followed by the ablative. 

a. Compounds, used figuratively; 0. ablative of place from; 
c. adjectives of freedom and want; d. opus and usus; egeo and 
indigeo with genitive (so other words of separation and want). 

2. Source. The ablative is used to denote source or material. 

a. Participles of birth and origin; Bb. place of birth; c. of mate- 
rial, with constare ; d. with facere, &c. 

3. Cause. The ablative is used to express cause. 

a. dignus, indignus, and certain verbs; 0. motive expressed 
with ob or propter; C. causa, gratia. 

4. Agent. The voluntary agent after a passive verb is put in 
the ablative with ab. 

a. So with neuters; 6. agent as instrument with per or opera. 

5. Comparison. The comparative degree is followed by the 
ablative, signifying than. 

a. Use of quam; b. idiomatic ablatives, opinione, &c.; ¢. con- 
struction of plus, amplius, &c. 

_ 6. Means. The ablative is used to denote accompaniment, 
means, instrument. 


_@. Accompaniment with cum (misceo, jungo); B. contention 
with cum; c. with words of fulness; d. utor, &c.; e, abl. of degree of 
difference (eo, quo, &c 


_ 7. Quality. The ablative is used (with an adjective or limit 
ing genitive) to denote manner and quality. 
a. Physical characteristics; 0. manner with cum; modo, &c. 


OUTLINE OF SYNTAX, 241 


8. Price. The price of a thing is put in the ablative. 
a. Certain genitives of quantity are used to denote indefinite value ; 
b. so of certain nouns. 


9. Specification. The ablative denotes that in respect to 
which any thing is or is done, or in accordance with which any 
thing happens. 


10. Locative. The ablative of the place where is retained 
in many idiomatic expressions. 


a. Verbs and Verbals. 


b. ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE: A noun or pronoun, with a participle [form- 
ing the subject and predicate of a subordinate clause] may be put in the 
ablative to define the time or circumstances of an action; c. Ablative of 
neuter adjective; d. Ablative of place where and time when. 


55. TIME AND PLACE. —1. Time. Time when (or within 
which) is put in the ablative; time how long in the accusative. 

a. Use of preposition; 0. Ablative of duration. 

2. Space. Extent of space is put in the accusative. 

a. Genitive of measure; 8. Distance in accusative or ablative. 

3. Place. To express relations of place, prepositions are 
necessary, except with the names of towns and small islands. 


a. The name of the place from which is in the ablative. 


b. The name of the place to which is in the accusative (so certain 
phrases ; aiso the former supine). 


c. The name of the place where takes the locative form, which in 
the Ist and 2d declensions singular is the same as the genitive ; in the 
plural and in the 8d declension, the same as the dative (or ablative). 


ad. domi, belli, militiz, humi, ruri, &c.; €. possessives with 
domus; 7. special phrases. 


4. Way. The way by which is put in the ablative. 


56. Prepositions. —1. Prepositions govern the accusative 
or ablative (p. 146). 


a. Those governing accus.; 0. those governing abl.; c. in, sub 
(pono, statuo, &c.); d. super; e. subter; 7. Dates; g. tenus. 


2. Many words may be construed either as prepositions or as 
adverbs. 


a. pridie, propius, &c., with accus.; 6. palam, &c., with abl.; 
c. clam; d. Prepos. as adverbs (ante, &c). 


3. Prepositions or adverbs implying comparison are followed 
by quam. 


4. The ablative with a or ab is regularly used after passive 
verbs to denote the agent (if a person). 


5. Many prepositions sometimes follow their nouns. 


242 SUPPLEMENT. 


Til. Syntrax oF THE VERB. 


57. Moops. — The Moods of a Latin verb are the Indica- 
tive, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive (p. 148). 

1. Indicative. ‘The Indicative is the mood of direct asser- 
tions or questions. 

2. Sunyunctive. The Subjunctive is used in special con- 
structions, both in dependent and independent clauses. 


a. INDEPENDENT: hortatory, optative, concessive, dubitative; 
also in apodosis; 0. DEPENDENT: purpose or result, temporal 
clauses, indirect discourse, intermediate clauses. 


3. Hortatory. The Subjunctive is used (present or perfect) 
to express a command or exhortation. 

a. Second person of indefinite subj.; 6. perfect in prohibitions ; 
Cc. proviso; d. past obligation. 

4. Optative. The subj. is used to denote a wish: primary 
tenses when conceived as possible; secondary, as unaccomplished. 
a. Old use of perfect; 6. ut, utinam, O si; velim, vellem. 

5. Concessive: the subjunctive is used to express a conces- 
sion (with or without ut, quamvis, quamlibet, &c.). 

6. Dubitative: the subjunctive is used in questions imply- 
~ ing doubt, indignation, or an impossibility of the thing being 
done. 

7. IMPERATIVE. The Imperative is used in commands; also, 
by early writers and poets, in prohibitions. 

a. Prohibitions (perf. subj., noli, cave, fac ne); 0. use of pres. 
subj.; ¢. future imperative; d. future for imperative. 


8. InrinitrveE. The Infinitive denotes the action of the verb 
as an abstract noun. : 

a. As subject or object (esse and impersonals); 0. with imperso- 
nals as subj. or complement; ¢. Complementary Infinitive; d. used 
optionally ; @. with subj.-accus., after words of knowing, thinking, and 
telling; f. Purpose; g. Exclamations; hf. Historical Infinitive. 


58. Tenses.— The Tenses are the Present, Imperfect, 
Future of incomplete action, and the Perfect, Pluperfect, 
and Future Perfect of completed action (p. 157). 

1. The tenses of the INDICATIVE denote absolute time. 

2. Present. The Present denotes an action or state as now 
existing, as incomplete, or as indefinite. 

a. Action continuing; 6. Conative Present; ¢. Present for future ; 
ad. Historical Present; e. with dum; f. of extant writers. 

3. Imperfect. The imperfect denotes an action or condition 
continued or repeated in past time. 


a. Descriptions ; }. action continuing; ¢. conative; d. surprise; 
é. in narrative (comic), 


OUTLINE OF SYNTAX. 243 


4. Future. The Future denotes an action or condition that 
will occur hereafter. . 

5. Perfect. The perfect definite denotes an action as now 
completed; the perfect historical, as having taken place indefi- 
nitely in past time. 

a. As no longer existing; 0. of indefinite time; c. of general 
truth (gnomic), especially negations; d- in negations preferred to 
imperfect. 

6. Pluperfect. The Pluperfect is used to denote an action com- 
pleted in time past; sometimes also repeated in indefinite time. 

7. Future Perfect. The Future Perfect denotes an action 
as completed in the future. 

8. Epistolary Tenses. In Letters, the perfect or imperfect 
may be used for the present, and the pluperfect for past tenses. 


9. SussuncTivE. In Independent clauses, the Present Sub- 
junctive always refers to future time, the Imperfect to either past 
or present; the Perfect to either future or past; the Pluperfect 
always to past. 

In Dependent clauses, the tenses of the subjunctive denote 
relative time, not with reference to the speaker, but to the action 
of some other verb. 

10. Sequence of Tenses. In compound sentences, a pri- 
mary tense in the leading clause is followed by a primary tense 
in the dependent clause ; and a secondary tense is followed by a 
secondary (p. 162). 

a. Perfect definite; 6. Perfect subjunctive; c. Perfect in clauses 
of result (compared with imperf.); ad. general truths; e. historical 
present; 7. Protasis and Apodosis; g. imperfect subjunctive in lead- 
ing clauses; J. secondary tenses by synesis. 

11. Inrinitrve. The tenses of the Infinitive are present, 
past, or future relatively to the time of the verb on which 
they depend. 

a. Present, following verb in past tense; 0. Perfect (memini) ; 
c. Present, without reference to time; @. Perf. with verbs of wishing, 
&c.; é Perf. with verbs of feeling (poetic); 7. Future (fore ut). 


59. ConpITIONAL SENTENCES. — A conditional sentence 
(or clause) is one beginning with 1F or some equivalent. 

1. Protasis and Apodosis. The clause containing the con- 
dition (1F) is called the Protasis; that containing the conclusion 
is called the Apodosis. 

a. Protasis: 1F or indef. relative; 6. Apodosis the main clause. 

2. Particular and General Conditions: — 

a. A particular supposition refers to a definite act (or series of 


acts) occurring at some definite time. 

b. A general supposition refers to any one of a class of acts which 
may occur (or may have occurred) at any time. 

c. Classification of conditional sentences (p. 167). 


244 SUPPLEMENT. 


3. Present and Past Conditions .— 


a. In the statement of a condition whose falsity is not implied, 
the tenses of the Indicative are used. 

6. In the statement of a supposition known to be false, the imper- 
fect and pluperfect subjunctive are used. 

c. Impert. subj. referring to past; d. Indic. in apodosis; @€. ex- 
pressions of necessity, duty, &c.; fs Fut. part. with fui = plup. subj. 

4. Future Conditions :— 


a. Use of future indic.; &- of present subj.; c. of future perf. 
d. Form of Apodosis; ¢- Perfect indic. in apodosis ; f- Amperf. (or 
plupert.) subj. by sequence of tenses. 

5. General Conditions : — 

a. Indefinite subject (2d person singular); 6. repeated action (im- 
perfect subj. and indic.); ¢ in other cases, indicative. 

60. ImpLicp ConpiTions.—In many sentences, the con- 
dition is stated in some other form than a conditional clause, 
or is implied in the nature of the thought (p. 172). 

1. Condition Disguised : — 

a. In a relative or participial clause; 0. in a wish or command; 
Cc. in an independent clause. 

2. Condition Omitted : — 

a. Potential Subjunctive; 6. Subjunctive of modesty; ¢. Indic- 
ative of necessity, duty, &c.; ad. mixed constructions. 


61. ConpDITIONAL Particies. Certain particles implying a 
condition are followed by the subjunctive (p. 174). 


1. Comparative: —tamquam, &c. (with pres. or perf. subj.). 


2. Concessive: — quamvis, ut, licet, etsi. 

3. Proviso: —modo, dum, dummodo. 

4. Use of the Conditional Particles: — 

a. si, nisi; b. nisi vero (objection); c. sive (alternative) ; d. con- 
cessive particles. 


62. ReLatTions oF Time. Temporal clauses are introduced 
‘by particles which are almost all of relative origin; and are 
usually construed like other relative clauses (p. 176). 


1. Temporal particles are used as indefinite relatives. 
2. Temporal clauses of absolute time take the Indicative ; those 
of relative time, the Subjunctive. 


a. postquam, ut, ubi; 0. cum temporal; c. antequam, priue 
quam; d. dum, donec, quoad ; é. cum causal; 7. cum...tum. 


63. CAUSE OR REAson. Causal Clauses may take the Indica- 
tive or Subjunctive according to their construction (p. 181):— 


1. Indicative in direct construction; 
2. Subjunctive of indirect discourse. 
a. Relative clause of characteristic; 0B. cum causal. 


OUTLINE OF SYNTAX. 245 


64. PurrosE.—1. Final clauses take the Subjunctive after 
relatives, or the conjunction ut, -ne (p. 182). 


a. Use of quo; 6. Suppression of principal clause. 


2. Purpose is expressed in various ways; but never (except 

rarely in poetry) by the simple Infinitive (p. 183). ’ 
65. CoNnSEQUENCE or Resu.t. —1. Consecutive Clauses take 

the Subjunctive after relatives or the conj. ut, ut non (p. 183). 
a. quominus; 6. quin (substantive clause). 


2. A relative clause of Result is often used to indicate a char- 
acteristic of the antecedent. 


a. General expressions of existence, &c.; 6. unus and solus; 
c. Comparatives with quam; dd. restriction or proviso; € cause 
or hinderance; f. dignus, aptus, idoneus. 

66. INTERMEDIATE CLavses. A subordinate clause takes 
the Subjunctive when it expresses the thought of some other 
person than the speaker or writer; or when it is an integral 
part of a subjunctive clause or an equivalent infinitive (p. 185). 


1. The Subjunctive is used in intermediate clauses to express 
the thought of some other person. 

a. Indirect discourse; 6. depending on implied wish, command, 
&c.; C. main clause merged in a verb of saying; d. reason with 
quod (non quod, non quin). 

2. A clause depending on another subjunctive clause (or equiv- 
alent infinitive) will also take the subjunctive if regarded as an 
integral part of that clause. 


67%. Inprrect Discoursre.—A Direct Quotation is one 

which gives the exact words of the original speaker or writer. 
An Indirect Quotation is one which adapts the original words 
to the structure of the sentence in which they are quoted. 

1. Indirect Narrative. In a declaratory sentence in indirect 
discourse, the principal verb is in the Infinitive, and its subject 
in the Accusative. All subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive. 

a. Subject-accusative; 6. Relative clauses; ¢. Conditional Sen- 
tences; ad. Questions: indirect or rhetorical. 

2. Indirect Questions. An indirect question takes its verb 
in the Subjunctive. 

a. Future participle; 6. Dubitative Subjunctive; ¢. Accusative 
of anticipation; d. Early use of indicative; e@. Indefinites (nescio 
quis); f. clauses with si (whether). 

3. Indirect Commands. All imperative forms of speech 
take the Subjunctive in indirect discourse. 

68. WisHes AND ComMANDs.—1. Wishes are expressed by 
the Subjunctive : the primary tenses in reference to future time, 
the secondary to express a hopeless wish (p. 192). 


s 


246 SUPPLEMENT. 


2. Commands are expressed by the Imperative or Subjunc- 
tive; Prohibitions by the subjunctive or a periphrasis with noli, 
cave. The Object of a command is given in a purpose-clause. 

3. Indirectly quoted, all these forms take the Subjunctive. 

69. ReLtativeE CiLAusEs. —1. A simple relative, merely in- 
troducing a descriptive fact, takes the Indicative. 

2. In relative clauses with the Subjunctive, the relative is 
either in protasis, or expresses some logical connection, or has 
no effect on the construction (as in indirect discourse). 


70. Susstantive CLauses.— A Substantive Clause is 
one which is the subject or object of a verb, or in apposition 
with a subject or object (p. 193). 

1. Classification: 1. Infinitive Clauses; 2. Indirect Ques- 
tions; 3. Clauses of purpose or result (ut); 4. Indicative of 
fact (quod). 

2. The Infinitive (with accusative) is used as the Subject chiefly 
of esse and impersonal verbs; as the Object, 1. of verbs and 
expressions of knowing, thinking, and telling; 2. jubeo, veto, 
&e.; 3. of verbs of wishing. 


a. After passives; 0. poetic extension; c. verb of saying im- 
plied; d. verbs of promising, &c. 

3. Clauses of Purpose are used as the object of all verbs de- 
noting an action directed towards the future. 

a. Verbs of commanding, &c.; 6. of wishing, &c.; Ce of permission, 
&ec.; d. of determining, &c. (decreeing, with part. in dus); e. of cau- 
tion and effort; f. of fearing (ne, ut); gy. poetic use of infinitive. 

4. Clauses of Result are used as the object of verbs denoting 
the accomplishment of an effort. 


a. Verbs of happening, &c.; 6. following quam; c. in exclama- 
tions (elliptically); @. tantum abest; e, facere ut; f. instead of 
accus. and infin. ; gy. hindering (quin; non dubito) ; #2. Use optional. 


5. The Indicative with quod is used (more commonly as sub- 
ject) when the statement is regarded as a fact. 

a. As accus. of specification; &. with verbs of feeling (miror si). 

71, QuEsTIONS. — Questions are introduced by interroga- 
tive pronouns, adverbs, or particles, and are not distinguished 
by the order of words (p. 200). ) 

1. Interrogative Particles : — 


a. num in indirect questions; 0. form of indirect questions; 
c. enclitic «ne; d. nescio an, &e. 


2. Double Questions (utrum ...an):— 

a. Omission of former particle; 0. of first member; ¢. of sec- 
ond member; d. forms of alternative. 

3. Question and Answer. In answering a question, the 
verb is generally repeated. 


a 


OUTLINE OF SYNTAX. 247 


72, ParticiepLes.— The Participle expresses the action 
of the verb in the form of an adjective (p. 202). 


1. Distinctions of Tense:— — 
a. Present; 0. Perfect (deponent) ; c. Pres. passive (dum, =dus). 
2. Adjective Use, attributive :— 


a. As nouns; 0. as predicate with esse; c. periphrastic perfect; 
d. two forms of perfect passive. 


3. Predicate Use. The present and perfect participles are 
often used to express time, cause, occasion, condition, conces- 
sion, characteristic, manner, circumstance (especially in the 
Ablative Absolute). 

a. Passive part. containing the main idea; B®. Perfect part. with 
habeo; c. with volo; Present part. for infin. (with facio, &c.). 


4. Future Participle :— 

a. Periphrastic conjugation; 6. with fui, &c., for pluperf. subj. 

5. Gerundive (denoting necessity and propriety): — 

a. in simple agreement; 8. periphrastic conjugation (impersonal 
use); € with verbs of undertuking, demanding, &c. 


73. GERUND AND GERUNDIVE.—1. The Gerund, in gram- 
matical construction, follows the same rules as nouns (p. 206). 


2. Gerundive. When the Gerund would have an object in 
the accusative, the Gerundive is generally used instead, agree- 
ing with the noun, in the case which the gerund would have had. 


3. Construction. The Gerund and Gerundive are used in 
the oblique cases in the constructions of nouns :— 


a. The Genitive is used as objective genitive after nouns or adjec- 
tives, as a predicate with esse, or as a genitive of quality. 

6. The Dative is used after the adjectives (rarely nouns) which 
are followed by the dative of nouns ; sometimes also after verbs. 

ec. The Accusative is used after several prepositions; most fre- 
quently after ad denoting purpose. 

ad. The Ablative is used to express means, instrument, or manner, 
after comparatives, and after several prepositions. 

e. The Gerund is occasionally found in apposition with a noun. 


74. Supine.—1. The Former Supine is used after verbs of 
motion, to express the purpose of the motion (p. 209). 


2. The Latter Supine is used only after a few adjectives and 
nouns, to denote that in respect to which the quality is asserted. 


248 SUPPLEMENT. 


SYNOPSIS OF CONSTRUCTIONS. 
[The figures refer to pages.] 


I. SuspsecT AND PREDICATE. 

oe of abl. with loéative, 104. 
1. Apposition of gen. with possessive, 105. 
2. Predicate Agreement, 104. 
with nearest noun, 105. 
by synests, 106 


Noun: agreement in case 


re Agreement 
ttributive ‘ 
: . masc. or fem., of persons, 106. 
ADJECTIVE: Fe pee } 28 Noun peer as object, quality, ke., 107. 

Ppe Possessive, as genitive (subj. or obj.), 108. 
(as Adverb, qualiiying the act, 108. 

with appositive, 110. 

Agreement in case by. attraction, 110. 


in either or both clauses, 110. 
Antecedent noun omitted, 110. 





RELATIVE: 


II. ConsTrRuCTION OF CASES. 


NoMINATIVE: as Subject of a Finite Verb, 112. 


1. Subjective (source, possession, quality), 114. 
2. Partitive (with numerals, superlatives, &c.), 115. 
Ze ith nouns and adjectives 4 agency, eer 
3. Objective ¢ _. of memory and feeling, 119 lo 
ai “varte of charge and penalty, 119. 


GENITIVE: 


: 4 with transitives, 121. 
- Of Indirect Object with intransitives, 122. 
‘ with esse, 126. 
- Of Possession with nomen est, 127. 

with gerundive, 127. 

- Of Agency with other passive forms, 127. 
. Of Service (denoting purpose or end), 128. 
Of Nearness, fitness, likeness, &c., 128. 
. Of Reference (dativus commodi), 129. 
. Of Direct Object (including cognate accusative), 131. 
Of Apposition or Secondary object, 132 
. Adverbial ( ati accusative of specification), 133. 
. Of Exclamation, 133. 
. As subject of Infinitive, 133. 


VocaTIveE: of Direct Address. 


, eis 
~~ 


DATIVE: + 





ACCUSATIVE: 


TP OLE Horm co po 


of separation and want, 135. 
1. Original | of source, 136. 
’ Ablative { of cause, 137. 
(FROM) | of agent (with ad), 138. 
of comparison (than), 138. 





of means and accompaniment, 189. 
ABLATIVE: { 2. Instrumental | of quality (with adjectives), 141. 
(WITH) of price, 141. 
of specification, 142. 
Place where, 145. 
3. Locative |} Time at or within which, 143. 
(IN, AT) j; Idiomatic use, 142. 
{ Circumstance (ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE), 142. 


SYNOPSIS OF CONSTRUCTIONS. 249 


Ill, Synrax or THE VERB. 


INDICATIVE: Direct assertion or question; Absolute Time, 148. 
{ Hortatory, opelre Concessive, Dubitative, 148. 
f Purpose or Result, 181, 183. 177. 
Chaiacteristic, 184; Relative Time, 
SUBJUNCTIVE: { Dependent } Indirect Discourse egos 188, 
Peo : ndir. Quest. 190. 
Coadtiions Future, 170. 
; Contrary to fact, 168. 
IMPERATIVE: Commands, Prohibitions, 152. ; 
as Subject or Object; Comp'ementary, 154.’ 
INFINITIVE: jet Indirect Discourse (subject-accusative), 188. 
of Purpose; Exclamation; Historical, 156. 











simple condition (indic.), 168. 
contrary ie re (subj ), 168. 
more vivid (fut. indic.), 170. 
Expressed eieste less vivid (pres. subj.), 170. 
Goneral j indef. subject (2d person), 171. 
{ repeated action, 171. 
by qualifying clause, 172. 
Disguised by wish, command, &c., 172. 
independent clause, 173. 
Implied - povenser: subjunctive, 173. — 

: subjunctive of modesty, 173. 
Omitted (indic. of necessity, &c., 174.) 
‘ mixed constructions, 174. 
Principal clause: Accus. and Infin., 188. 

Narrati Relative, 188. 
arration \ Subordinate clauses, Subj.: 4 Conditional, 188. 
INDIRECT Imperative, 191. 
DiscouRsE: | . { Interrog. phrase, 190. 
Question (Subjunctive) Accus. of anticipation, 190. 
; nescio quis, mirum si, 191. 
| Intermediate Clauses (Subjunctive), 186. 
f Meena. and tnan. (°° Subject (esse and impers. ), 153. 
(or Infin. alone) ) as Object pee yi if 195 
SUBSTANTIVE | Purpnes (cunmaasd with, ar. 16 
7 7 j 9 ’ ’ . 
CuausEs: | Subjunctive with ur Result (happen, effect, hinder), 197. 
Indicative with Quon: fact, specification, feeling, 199. 
| Indirect Questions, 190. 
p Simple predicate, 203. 
Periphrastic perfect, 203. 
Present and Perfect { Predicate of circumstance, 204. 
; (Ablative Absolute), 204. 
; Present, descriptive (indir. dise.), 205. 
PARTICIPLES: Fut Periphrastic with esse, 205. 
fp ee + With fui = pluperf. subj., 169. 
as descriptive adjective, 205. 
Gerundive { periphrastic with esse, 205. 
of purpose, with certain verbs, 206. 
: Genitive: as objective gen., 207. 
Gerrunp? (like Infinitive) and | Dative: with adjectives, &c., 208. 


GERUNDIVE (in agreement; Accusative: with prepositions, 208. 
with noun): Ablative: § 0f, manner and instrum., 208. 
* | with prepositions, 208. 


s Former Supine: with verbs of motion, 209. 
oe Latter Supine: with adjectives, nouns, verbs, 209. 


Present or Past 


CONDITIONS: ; 











. 


250 


SUPPLEMENT. 


PECULIAR AND EXCEPTIONAL Noun-FOorRMS. 











First and Second Declensions. 












































Sing. 
N. dea deus filius Gaius studium vir 
G. des dei fili(ii) Gai studi (ii) viri 
D. dese deo filio Gaio studio viro 
A. deam deum filium Gaium & virum 
Vv. dea deus fili Gai vir 
A. dea deo filio Gaio viro 
Plur. 
N.V. dese dei(dii, di) filii Gai studia viri 
G. dearum deorum c. Gaio &e. virorum 
D Ab.deabus deis (diis, dis) Gais viris 
Acc. deas deos Gaios viros 
Third Declension (Greek). 

Sing. 
NW. aer (M.) heros(M.) lampas(r.) basis tigris 

aéris (Os) herois lampa&dos baseos (is) tigris (idos) 
D. = aeri heroi ampadi basi tigri [ida 
Ac. aera heroa lampada basin (im) tigrin (im, 
Ab. aere heroe lampade basi tigri (ide) 
Plur. . 
= V. herdés lampadés basés ' tigres 

heroum lampadum  basium tigrium 
>. Ab. lampadibus basibus tigribus 
Acc. heroa&s lampa basés (eis) tigris (id&s) 
Fourth and Fifth Declensions. 
Sing. Plur. 
N. domus(F.) domus senatus plebes 
G. domus domorum (uum) senatus (i, uos) plebei (i) 
D. domui (0) domibus senatu plebei (i) 
Ac. domum domos senatum plebem 
Ab. domo (u) domibus senatu plebe 
[Loc. domi.] 
Proper Names-(Greek). 

N Atrides Phcebe Athés(o) Delds Orpheus 
G. Atridse Phoebes Atho (i) Deli Orphei (eos) 
D. Atridee Phoebse Atho Delo Orpheo (ei) 
A Atriden(em) Phceben Atho(on) Delon(um) Ft heum (ea) 
Vv. Atrida Phoebe Orpheu 
A. Atrida Phoebe Atho Delo Orpheo 
N. Achilles Socrates Thales To (Ion) Juppiter 
G Achillis (eos, Socratis (i) ° Thali (etis) Las (onts) Jovis 
D. Achilli |ei, i) Socrati Thali(eti) lo (oni) ovi 
A. Achil len (ea) Socraten (em) Thalen(eta) Io (ona) Jovem 
V. Achi Socrate Thales Io Juppiter 
A. chille Socrate Thale ‘ete) Io ove 
N Atlas(ans} aocoon Simois Capy Argos (N.) 
G. Atlantis Laocoontis Simoentis Capyos (is) Nom. +e Ace. 
D Atlanti Laocoonti Simoenti Capyi Piur 
A. Atlanta Laocoonta Simoenta Capyn(ym) Argi 
V. Atlas (Atla) ILaocoon Simois Capys Argorum 
A. Atlante Laocoonte Simoente Capye . Argis, &c. 


Note. —The regular Latin forms may be used for most of the above. 


APPENDIX. - 


Latin was originally the language of the plain of Latium, lying 
south of the Tiber, the first territory occupied and governed by the 
Romans... This language, together with the Greek, Sanskrit, Zend 
(old Persian), the Sclavonic and Teutonic families, and the Celtic, 
are shown by comparative philology to be offshoots of a common 
stock, a language once spoken by a people somewhere in the in- 
terior of Asia, whence the different branches, by successive gar 
tions, peopled Europe and Southern Asia. 

The name Indo-European (or Aryan) is given to the whole 
group of languages, as well as to the original language from which 
. the branches sprang. By an extended comparison of the cor- 
responding roots, stems, and forms, as they appear in the different 
branches, the original (“ Indo-European”) root, stem, or form can 
in very many cases be determined; and this is used as a model, 
or type, to which the variations may be referred. A few of these 
forms are given in the grammar for comparison (see, especially, 
p. 59). A few are here added for further illustration : 


1. Case Forms (Stem VAK, voice). 


Indo-Eur. Sanskr. Greek. Latin. 
Sina. Nom. vaks vaks by vox 
Gen. vakas vachas émés vocis 
Dat. vakai vache él voci 
Ace. vakam vacham ora vocem 
Abl. vakat vachas (gen. or dat.) voce(d) 
Loc. vaki vachi .) (dat.) 
Instr. vaka vacha (dat.) (abl.) 
Piur. Nom. vikas vachas drres voces 
Gen. vakam . vacham or Ov yvocum | 
Dat. vakbhyams vagbhyas yl vocibus 
Ace. vakams vachas bras voces 
Abl. vakbhyams (as dat.) (gen. or dat.) vocibus 
Loc. vaksvas vaksu (dat.) 
Instr. vakbhis vagbhis (dat (abl.) 


(For Verb-Forms, see p. 59.) 


252 


APPENDIX, 


2. Cardinal Numbers. 


Indo-Eur. Sanskr. Greek. Latin, ~° 
13 [eka] [els] oe 
2 dva dva dvo uo 
5 en Ov | tri Tpcts tres 
4 kvatvar chatur [récoapes] _ quattuor 
5 kvankva panchan WwEVTE quinque 
6 ksvaks shash & sex 
7 saptam saptan érrd septem 
8 aktam ashtun OxT aw octo 
9 navam navan évvéa novem 
10 dakam dasan déxa decem 
12 dvadakam dva-dasan dwdexa duodecim 
13 tridakam trayo-dasan tpicxaldexa _—_ tredecim 
20 dvidakanta vinsati elkoor viginti 
30 tridakanta trinsati TpidKovTa triginta 
100 kantam catam éxarév centum 
3. Familiar and Household Words. bad 
Indo-Eur. Sanskr. Greek. Latin. 
Father. patar- pitri- warip pater 
Mother. matar- matri- harp mater 
Father-in-law. svakura- evacura- éxupds socer 
Daughter-in-law, snusha- snusha- vuds nurus 
Brother. bhratar- bhratri- ¢pdrnp* frater 
Sister. svasar- (?) — svasar- [addekp7H] —ssoror 
Master. pati- ti- mbots potis 
House dama- ama- d5puos domus 
Seat. sadas- sadas- &5os sedes 
Year. vatas- vatsa- eros vetus (old) 
Field. agra- ajra- aypés ager 
Ox, Cow. u- go- Bois bos 
Sheep (Ewe). avi- avi- dis ovis 
Swine (Sow). si- sii- bs, ovs sus 
Yoke. yuga- yuga- guyév jugum 
Wagon. rata- rata- [duata] rota (wheel) 
Middle, madhya- madhya- pésos medius 
Sweet. svadu- svadu- 70s suavis 


The immigrants who peopled the Italian peninsula also divided 
into several branches, and the language of each branch had its own 
development, until they were finally crowded out by the dominant 
Latin. Fragments of some of these dialects have been preserved, 
in monumental remains, or as cited by Roman antiquarians, though 
no literature now exists in them; and other fragments were prob- 
ably incorporated in that popular or rustic dialect which formed 
the basis of the modern Italian. The most important of these 
ancient languages of Italy — not including Etruscan, which was 


* Clansman. 


APPENDIX. 253 


of uncertain origin— were the Oscan of Campania, and the Um- 
brian of the northern districts. Some of their forms as compared 
with the Latin may be seen in the following: 





Latin. Oscan. Umbrian, Latin. Oscan. Umbrian 
accinere arkane neque nep 
alteri (loc.) alttrei per perum 
argento aragetud portet portaia 
avibus — aveis quadrupedibus _ peturpursus 
censor censtur quatuor petora petur 
censebit  censazet quingue  pomtis 
contra, F. contrud,N. qui, quis pis pis 
cornicem curnaco quid pid 
dextra destru quod pod pod 
dicere deicum (cf. venum-do) | cui piei 
dixerit dicust quom pone, pune 
duodecim desenduf __| rectori regaturei 
extra ehtrad | siquis svepis 
facito factud stet stai*t(stai*et) 
fecerit fefacust subvoco subocau 
fertote fertuta sum sum 
fratribus fratrus est i*st 
ibi ip sit set 
imperator embratur fuerit fust fust 
inter anter anter fuerunt fufans 
liceto licitud fuat fuid fuia 
magistro mestru tertium tertim 
medius mefa_ ubi puf 
mugiatur mugatu uterque puturus pid 
multare moltaum utrique puterei® putrespe 


Fragments of early Latin are preserved in inscriptions dating 
back to the third century before the Christian era; and some Laws 
are attributed to a much earlier date, — to Romulus (8. oc. 750) and 
Numa (8. c. 700); and especially to the Decemvirs (Twelve Tables, 
B. 0. 450); but i their present form no authentic dates can be as- 
signed to them. Some of these are usually given in a supplement 
to the Lexicon. (See also Cic. de Legibus, especially ii. 8, iii. 3, 4.) 

Latin did not exist as a literary language, in any compositions 
known to us, until about B. c. 200. At that time it was already 
strongly influenced by the writings of the Greeks, which were the 
chief objects of literary study and admiration. The most popular 
plays, those of Plautus and Terence, were simply translations from . 
Greek, introducing freely, however, the popular dialect and the 
slang of the Roman streets. As illustrations of life and manners 
they belong as much to Athens as to Rome. And the natural 
growth of a genuine Roman literature seems to have been thus 


254 APPENDIX. 


very considerably checked or suppressed. rations, rhetorical 
works, letters, and histories, — dealing with the practical affairs 
and passions of politics, — seem to be nearly all that sprang direct 
from the native soil. The Latin poéts of the Empire were mostly 
court-poets, writing for a cultivated and luxurious class; satires and 
epistles alone keep the flavor of Roman manners, and exhibit the 
familiar features of Italian life. 

In its use since the classic period, Latin is known chiefly as 
the language of the Civil Code, which gave the law to a large part 
of Europe; as the language of historians, diplomatists, and philos- 
ophers during the Middle Age, and in some countries to a much 
later period; as the official language of the Church and Court of 
Rome, down to the present day; as, until recently, the common 
language of scholars, so as still to be the ordinary channel of com- 
munication among many learned classes and societies; and as the 
universal language of Science, especially of the descriptive sciences, 
so that many hundreds of Latin terms, or derivative forms, must be 
known familiarly to any one who would have a clear knowledge of 
the facts of the natural world, or be able to recount them intelli- 
gibly to men of science. In some of these uses it may still be 
regarded as a living language; while, conventionally, it retains its 
place as the foundation of a liberal education. , 

During the classical period of the language, Latin existed not 
only in its literary or urban form, but in several local dialects, 
known by the collective name of lingua rustica, far simpler in the 
forms of inflection than the classic Latin. This, it is probable, was 
the basis of modern Italian, which has preserved many of the 
ancient words without aspirate or case-inflection, as orto (hortus), 
gente (gens). In the colonies longest occupied by the Romans, 
Latin — often in its ruder and more popular form — grew into the 
language of the common people. Hence the modern languages 
called “Romance” or “ Romanic”; viz., Italian, Spanish, Portu- 
guese, and French, together with the Catalan of Northeastern 
Spain, the Provengal or Troubadour language of the South of 
France, the “ Rouman” or Walachian of the lower Danube (Rou- 
mania), and the “ Roumansch” of some districts of Switzerland. 

A comparison of words in several of these tongues with Latin 
will serve to illustrate that process of phonetic decay to which 
reference has been made in the body of this Grammar, as well as. 


APPENDIX. 255 
the degree in which the substance of the language has remained 
unchanged. Thus, in the verb éo be the general tense-system has 
been preserved from the: Latin in all these languages, together 
with both of the stems on which it is built, and the personal 
endings, somewhat abraded, which can be traced throughout. The 
following exhibit the verb-forms with considerably less alteration 


than is found in the other Romanic tongues: — 


Latin. Italian. Spanish. Portuguese. French. Provencal. 
sum sono soy sou suis son (sui) 
es sei eres és es ses (est) 
est es hé est es (ez) 
sumus siamo somos somos sommes sem (em) 
estis siete sois sdis étes etz (es) 
sunt sono son sad sont _ sont (son) 
eram era era era étais era 

eras eri eras eras étais eras 

erat era era era était era 
eramus eravamo  éramos éramos étions eram 
eratis eravate erais. éreis _ étiez eratz 
erant érano eran érad étaient eran 

fui fui, fui fui fus fui 
fuisti -fosti fuiste féste fus fust 

fuit fi fue - foi fut fo (fon) 
fuimus fummo fuimos fomes fiimes fom 
fuistis foste fuisteis fdstos faites fotz 
fuerunt furono fueron forad furent foren 
sim sia sea seja, sois sia 

sis sli seas sejas sois ™ sias 

sit sia sea seja soit sia 
simus siamo seamos sejdmos soyons siam 
sitis siate seais sejais soyez siatz 
sint siano sean scjad solent sian 
fuissem fossi fuese fdsse fusse fos 
fuisses fossi fueses fisses fusses fosses 
fuisset fosse . fuese fdsse fat fossa (fos) 
fuissemus fdssimo fuésemos fdssemos  fussions fossem 
fuissetis foste. fueseis fésseis fussiez fossetz 
fuissent féssero fuesen fossem fussent fossen 

es sii se sé sois sias 

esto sia sea seja soit sia 

este siate sed séde soyez siatz 
sunto siano ' sean séjad soient sian 

esse éssere ser ser étre esser 
[sens] essendo _—_siendo séndo étant essent 


256 ) APPENDIX. 


PRINCIPAL ROMAN WRITERS. 


B.C. 

¥ T. Maccius Plautus, Comedies .. ° © « 254-184 
Q. Ennius, Annals, Satires, &c. (Fragments) © « « ~ 239-169 
M. Porcius Cato, Husbandry, Antiquities, dc. . + « 234-149 
M. Pacuvius, Zvagedies (Fragments)... .. « 220-130 
P. Terentius Afer (Terence), Cometthes. iss 656 14ih8 195-159 
L. Attius, Zragedies (Fragments) . -« ... «0 « 170-75 
C. Lucilius, Sa¢zres (Fragments) . ee 148-103 
M. Terentius Varro, Husbandr Antiquities, hee 116-28 

wM. Tullius Cicero, Oratious, Latters. Dialogues .. 106-43 

C. Julius Cesar, Commentaries . . eve ICO-44 

- T. Lucretius Carus, Poem ‘‘ De Rerum Natura” . . 95-52 
- C. Valerius Catullus, M//scellaneous Poems . .. . 87-47 
C. Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), Histories . qit 86-34 
vy Cornelius Nepos, Lives of Famous Commanders . . 

Lv P. Vergilius Maro, Eclogues, Georgics, ineid R 7O-19 
LQ. Horatius F laccus, Satires, Odes, Epistles . . . 65-8 
Albius Tibullus, Blegtes . . ne he part tee ta 54-18 
Sex. Aurelius Propertius, Elegies test ae os 51-15 

T. Livius Patavinus (Livy), Roman History . SQ-A. D. 17 


. P. Ovidius Naso (Ovid), ene are Fasti, ke. é ; » 43-A. D. 18 
Phedrus, ables. 2. 3s. 2 ..  ahhtitan ates 


Valerius Maximus, Azecdotes, ‘Le. a je SG ee og 3 -31 
C. Velleius Paterculus, Roman History . . . « « 19-31 
Pomponius Mela, Husbandry & Geogreg e * Gee pak -50 
A. Persius Flaccus, Satires  . - A.D. 34-62 
—L. Anneus Seneca, Philos. Letters, dc. . T ragedies : 6 
~M. Anneus Lucanus, Historical Poem “ Pharsalia” . 39-65 
Q. Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander. . . « . i 
C. Plinius Secundus (Pliny), Mat. Hist.. dc. . . . 23-79 
C. Valerius Flaccus, Herozc Poem, * Argonautica” . -88 
P. Papinius Statius, Heroic Poems, ** bein. anole &c. » 61-96 
C. Silius Italicus, Herote Poem, ‘“*Punica” . 6” i 25-100 
VD. Junius Juvenalis (Juvenal), Satires . . . s . 40-120 
L. Annezus Florus, Hist. Abridgment. . . . ; -120 


M. Valerius Martialis (Martial), E~zgrams. . . . 43-104 
VM. Fabius Quintilianus, Rhetoric . . ee at os 40-118 
\“C. Cornelius Tacitus, Aunals, History, bc. ; 60-118 

C. Plinius Cecilius Secundus (Pliny Junior) Letters 61-115 

C. Suetonius Tranquillus, Biographies . . . : 70- 


Apuleius, Philos. Writings, ‘‘ Metamorphoses ” &e. . 110- 

A. Gellius, Miscellanies, ‘‘ Noctes Attice” . . + +» about ~-180 
+ Q. Septimius Florens Tertullianus, Afologis# . . 160-240 
+ M. Minucius Felix, Afol. Dialogue . . . . + «about -250 
t Firmianus Lactantius, Theology . . . « «© « + . 250-325 
+D. Magnus Ausonius, Miscellaneous Poems . + + —400 
Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman History. «+ « * —400 
Claudius Claudianus, Poems, Panegyrics, &c. F -410 
+ Aurelius Prudentius Clemens, Christian Poems. . 348-410 
t Aurelius Augustinus, Confessions, Discourses, dc. . 3547430 
Anicius Manlius Boéthius, P&:los. Dialogues . + . 470-520 


t Christian writers. 


INDEX. 


Oe he 
Se Rube 


ee 


a 


rf 
= 





ae ha 
a 


oO lee 


ae ra 


i wr ay ee 
seen lag ag 
Le (Gach oes ¢ 
ee eatin. ° 
o 7 * ‘ 


ey Ts ee 
x Pi Ete 
: Somme 








INDEX. 





Notre.—The Figures refer to pages; the Letters a, b, c, to the upper, middle, or 


lower part of the page. 
A. 


A or ab, preposition, 88; after peto 
or postulo, 133 a; after participles 
of origin, 187 a; with abl. of agent 
after passives, 138 b, 147 c. 

Abbreviations of Pranomens, 32. 

ABLATIVE, 12 a; ending, 13 b; in 
abus, 14c; ini, 18 b, 35 c, 37 ¢; 
in is (3d decl.), 21 b; in ubus, 28c¢; 
neuter as Adverb, 84c; eo, quo, 

. &e., 49 c; after Prepositions, 88 ; 
with ab or de for part. gen., 116 b; 
of crime or penalty, 119 c; with 
dono, &c., 122 b ; with pro for de- 
fence, &c., 130 c.— Syntax, 134- 
143; signification, 134 c; of Sep- 
aration, 135 a; with compounds, b; 
of place whence, c; after adjectives 
of freedom and want, 1386 a; of 
Source after natus, &c., c; of Ma- 

_terial, 1387 b; of Cause (with ad- 
jectives and verbs), c; of Agent, 
138 b ; after Comparatives, c; after 
plus, &c., 1389 a; of Means, b; of 
Accompaniment, c; after utor, 
&e., 140 c; of Quality, 141 a; of 
Manner or Description, id.; of 
Price, b; of Specification, 142 a; 
Locative, 142 b, 148 b; Ablative 
Absolute, 142 c; used adverbially, 
143 a; of description, 204; of 
Time when, 143 b; how long, c; of 
Distance, 144 a; place whence, 
144.c; for Locative, 145 a; place 
where, ec; way by which, ce; with 
Prepositions, 146 a; with ab for 
Agent, 147 ¢; (distinguished from 
abl. of instrument, 148 a); of Ge- 
rundive, 208 ec. 

Absolute and Relative Time, 177. 

absque, 89 a. 

Abstract nouns in plural, 80 c; with 





neuter adjective, 106 a; expressed 
by neuter adjective, 107 c. 

ac, see atque; ac si, 174 c. 

Acatalectic verse, 222 c. 

Accent, Rules of, 7 c; marks of, 8 a. 

Accompaniment, ablative of, with 
cum, 139 c. 

AccusATIVE, 11 ¢; endings, 13 a; in 
im, 18 b, 85 c; in is, 19 a, 37 ¢; 
neuter as Adverb, 84 c (fem. 
85 a); after Prepositions, 88, 145 a. 
with verbs of remembering, &c.., 
119 a; with Impersonals, 120 a, 
182 b; with juvo, medeor, &c. 
123 c; with dative after verbs, 
124 c; after compounds with ante 
&e., 125 c; with ad for dative. 
128 c; after propior, &c., 129 b.— 
Syntax, 181-1383; as Direct Ob. 
ject, 181 a; with verbs of Feeling 
and Taste, b,c; Cognate, c; after 
compounds of circum and trans 
132 a; constructive use ( Constructic 
Pregnans), b ; after Impersonals, b; 
Two Accusatives, c (passive use, 
Rem.) ; Adverbial, 183a; synecdo- 
chical, b; of Exclamation, c; as 
subject of Infinitive, c, 155 b, 
194 a; distance and place whither 
133 c, 144 a; of Subject in Indi. 
rect Discourse, 188 a; of anticipa-. 
tion (in indir. questions), 190 c: 
in Substantive Clauses, 194 a; after 
verbs of Promising, &c., 195 a; of 
Gerundive, 208 b. | 

Accusing and Acquitting, verbs of 
119 b. 

Acephalous verse, 222. 

-aceus, adjective ending, 98 b. 

Achilles, infl., 250. 

Action, nouns of, 96 b, 97 ¢c; fol. 
lowed by genitive, 117 a. 


-ad, prepos. governing acc., 88 b. 


260 


-ades, patronymic, 98 b. 

adimo, construction of, 126 a. 

AvJectTives, 33-41; of lst and 2d 
declensions, 38; of 3d declension, 
35; of two or three terminations, 
85; of one termination, 36; infl. 
of comparatives, 37; of common 

gender, 388 a; cases of, used as 
Adverbs, 38 a, 84; derivation, 96 b, 
98 a; compound, 100 b; as mod- 
ifiers, 102.a; adjective phrase, b; 
Rule of Agreement, 105; as appo- 
sitive, b; rule of Gender, 106 a; 
agreement by synesis, b; agreeing 
with appositive or predicate, a; 
partitive, b, c; used as nouns, c; 
demonstratives as pronouns, 107 a; 
neuter adj. as noun, b ; Possessive, 
used as genitive, 108 a, 114 a; 
qualifying act (primus venit), 
108 c ; medius, reliquus, &c., 109; 
pred. in relative clause, 111 b; 
compar. or neuter as partitive, 
115 c; relative adj. governing 
genitive, 117 b; of feeling with 
animi, b; of Likeness, &c., 
with gen. or dat., 118 c, 129 b; of 
Fitness with dat. or ad and acc., 
128 c (propior with acc., 129 b) ; 
of freedom and want with abl., 
136 a; dignus, &c., with abl., 
137 c; with rel. clause, 185 c. 

admodum, 41 a. 

Adonic verse, 228 c. 

ADVERBS, 9 c, 84-87; comparison, 
40 b; numeral, 43 c; correlative, 
49; derivative, 84; classification, 
85 c; signification, 87; in com- 
pounds, 100 c, 124 b; as modifiers, 
102 a (phrase, b); qualifving a 
noun, 107 b; relative or demonstr. 
= pronoun with prepos., 111 c; as 
partitives, 116 a; hactenus, 147 a; 
pridie, &c., with accus., b ; palam, 
&ec., with abl., b; ante.. quam, c. 

Advyerbial phrase, 102 b; id tempo- 
ris, meam vicem, quod si, 133 b; 
in abl. absolute, 148 a. 

Adversative conjunctions, 94 a. 

adversus, 89 b; as adverb, 147 b. 

aer, infl., 250. 

Affix, close and open, 9 b. 

Agency, nouns of, 96 b, 97 c; gov- 
erning genitive, 117 a. 

Agent, abl. of with ab, 188 b, 147 c. 

Agnomen, 82 b. 





INDEX. 


AGREEMENT, Rules of, 103-113; of 


Nouns, c; appos. and predicate, — 


104 a; of Adjectives, 105; of 
omnes, quot, &c., instead of part. 
genitive, 116 c. 

aio, 81 c. 

al, ar, neuters of 8d decl. (list), 17 ¢. 

Alcaic Strophe, 229. 

ali-, stem of alius, 48 b. 

alienus as possessive, 145 b. 

aliquis, inflected, 48 b. 

-alis, -aris, adjective ending, 98 b. 


———— ee rl ee 


alius, inflected, 34 c; with abl. (po- 


etic), 189 b; alius.. alius, 109 c. 

Alphabet, classification, 1 b; earl 
forms, changes, 2; assimilation, 4. 

ambo, inflection of, 42 b. 

amplius, construed without quam, 
139 a. 

an, anne, annon, interrogative par- 
ticles, 200. 

Anapestic verse, 227. 

animi (locative), 118 b. 

ante, 89 b; omitted in dates, 146 c; 
as adverb, 147 b; followed by 
quam, c, 179 c. 

ante diem, 146 c. 

Antecedent of relative, 110 a; im- 
plied, b; in both clauses, or in 
relative clause only, c; omitted, 
lll a. 

Antepenult, 7 c. 

antequam, 179 c. 

Aorist (historical perfect), 53 b. 

apage, 82 b. 

Apodosis, defined, 166 a; form of, 
c; past tenses of indicative for 
potential, 169 a, 174 a. 

Apposition, 102 a, 104; rule of gen- 
der, 104 a; locative and abl., c; of 
possessive and gen., 105 a; of ad- 
jectives, b; neuter in, 107 c ; agree- 
ment of verb, 112 a; expressed by 
gen., 115 a; with nomen est (in 
dative), 127 a; after verbs of nam- 
ing, &c. (accus.), 182 c. 

apud, 89 c. 

aptus, with ad and acc., 128 c; with 
relative clause of result, 185 b. 

Argos, inflected, 250. 

Arsis and Thesis, 222 b. 

As, unit of value, 235. 

Asclepiadic verse, 228; forms of, 
230. 

Asking, verbs of (two accus.), 182 ¢; 
passive construction id. (Rem.). 


INDEX. 


Aspirate, 1 c, 215. 

Assibilation of c before e or i, 4 b. 

Assimilation of consonants, 3 b; in 
prepositions, 4 a. 

at, 95 b; at vero, 96 a. 

Athos, inflection of, 17 a, 250. 

Atlas, infl., 250. 

atque (or ac), with words of like- 
ness, &c., 95 a. 

Atrides, infli., 250. 

Attraction of relative, 110. 

Attributive adjective, gender, 105 c. 

-atus, adjective ending, 98 b. 

audeo, 77 a; ausim, b; ausus (as 
present), 222 b. 

aut, 95 b; in questions, 201 c. 

autem, position, 96 a. 

Authority in prosody, 215 c. 

ave, 82 b. 

-ax, adj. ending, 98 c ; adjectives in, 
with gen., 117 c. 


B.. 


Bacchic verse, 227 c. 

Bargaining, verbs of, 196 b; with 
part. in dus, 206 a. 

basis, infl., 250. 

belli (locative), 145 a. 

-ber, names of months in, 35 ¢. 

-bilis (passive verbal), 98 b. 

Birth, place of, in ablative, 187 a. 

bos, declined, 22 b. 


C. 


C=—G, 2a; for qu, b; interchanged 
with t, 4b; pronunciation, 6 a. 

Cesura, 222 b. 

Calendar, 235. 

Cardinal numbers, 41; declined, 42; 
comparative forms, 252. 

Capitis, with verbs of accusing and 
condemning, 119 a. 

caro, declined, 22. 

Capys, infl., 250. 

Cases, 11 b; endings, 18; forms (see 
Declensions); meaning of their 
names, 113 b; Construction of, 
113-148; comparative forms, 251. 

Catalectic verse, 222 c. 

causa, with genitive, 115 b, 138 a. 

Causal conjunctions, 94 b; clauses, 
102 ¢; construction of do., 181 b. 





261 


Causative verbs, 99 a. 

Cause, clauses of, 181; implied (sub- 
junctive clause), 185 b. 

Caution and Effort, verbs of, with 
substantive clause, 196 b. 

cave in prohibitions, 152 b, 196 c. 

-ce, enclitic (hic, etc.), 45 b. 

cedo (defective), 82 b. 

celo, with 2 acc., 133 a. 

certe, certo, 87 b. 

ceu, 174 ¢. 

ch, hard sound of, 6 c. 

Characteristic, clause of, 184 b. 

Chiasmus, 213 b. 

Choliambic verse, 226 b. 

Choriambic verse, 228 b. 

ci or ti before a vowel, 4 b. 

-cip (stem-ending), 20 b. 

circa, circiter, circum, cis, 89 c. 

circiter, as adverb, 147 b. 

Cities, names of, gender, 10 ce. 

citra, 89 c; following noun, 148 a. 

clam, as preposition, 147 b. 

Criauses, classification of, 102; used 
as adverbs, 85 b; with a neuter in 
appos., 107 c; limited by genitive 
of abstract nouns, 114 b; with 
peenitet, etc., 120 a; dependent, 
in sequence of tenses, 162 a; Con- 
ditional, 166-176; Temporal, 176- 
181; Causal, 181; Final, 182; Con- 
secutive, 183; Intermediate, 185; 
Subordinate (in indir. discourse), 
188; Relative (classified), 198 ; 
Substantive, 193-199 (see these 
titles). 

clienta, 37 a. 

Close syllables, 5 c; affixes, 9 b; in 
compounds, 65 a. 

coepi, 81 b. 

Cognate Accusative, 131 b. 

Cognomen, 32 b. 

onnete noun with plural verb, 
112 ¢. 

Commands, imperative, 51 b, 152 b; 
hort. subjunctive, 149 c, 192c; in 
indirect discourse, 191 c. 

Commanding, verbs of, with pur- 
pose-clause, 195 c; with result- 
clause, 198 c. 

committere ut, 198 a. 

Common gender, 11 a; of adjectives, 
38 a. 

Comparative conjunctions (as if), 
94 b, 174 c; with appos., 104 b; 
with primary tenses, 175 a. 


262 


Comparatives, declension, 87 a; use, 
40 c; as partitives, 115 c¢. 

Comparison of Adjectives, forms, 

- 83 b; irregular, 39 b; defective, c; 
of Adverbs, 40 b ; of qualities (two 
comparatives), 108; by magis, 
389 a, 109 a. 

Complementary accusative, 104 b; 
infinitive, 154 b. 

Completed action, tenses of, 58 ¢, 
159 c; idiomatic use, 170 ¢. 

CompounpDs, prepositions in, 4 a; of 
verbs, 65 a; of esse, 60; of facio 
and fio, 81 a; of non, 87 a; of 

- circum and trans, 132 a, c; of 
ab, de, ex, 135 b; quantity of, 220. 

Conative present, 157; imperfect, 158, 

Concession, verbs of (with clause or 
infin.), 196 a. 

Concessive subjunctive, 151; parti- 
cles, 94 c, 175 b. 

Condemning, verbs of, 119 b. 

Conditional conjunctions, 94 b, 176; 
Sentences, 166-174; Clauses, 102 b, 
103 a, 166; classified, 167. 

ConpitTions, particular and general, 
167; simple, 168 a; contrary to 
fact, b; (how developed, Note ;) 

' imperfect of continued state, c; 
use of indicative, 169; (part. in 
urus, c;) forms of future cond., 
170 (imperf. by sequence of tenses, 
171); general cond. (indef. sub- 
ject or repeated action), 171 c; 
implied, 172 (in intermed. clause, 
187 Note); omitted, 173; in indi- 
rect discourse, 189. 

confit, 82 b. 

Conjugation, 9 b, 60; the four regu- 
lar forms, 60-65; paradigms of, 
66-75. 

Conjunctions, 93-95 ; correlative, 49; 
classification, 93; meaning, 95. 

Connectives (relatives used as), 103 b. 

Consecutive clause defined, 103 a; 
syntax (subj. with ut), 183-185. 

Consonants, classification, 1 b; con- 
sonant stems, 12 c, 36 a. 

constare (consist), 137. 

Constructio pregnans, 132 b. 

Constructions of Cases, 113-148 ; 
Synopsis of, 248, 249. 

contra, 90 a; as adverb, 147 b; fol- 
lowing noun, 148 a. 

Contraction, 3 a, 7b; shown by cir- 
cumflex, 8 a. : 





INDEX. 


Contracting, &c., verbs of, with ge- 
rundive, 206 a. 

Co-ordinate clauses, 102 c. 

Copula, 101 ¢c. 

cordi, 128 b. 

Correlatives, 49. 

Countries, names of, gender, 10 c. 

credo (parenthetic), 214 a. 

Cretic verse, 228. 

Crime or charge, gen. of, 119 b; ex- 
pressed by abl., c. 

cum (prep.), 90 a; as enclitic, with 
pronoun and relative, 44 c, 47 ¢; 
with abl. of accompaniment, 139 c; 
contention, 140 c ; manner, 141 b. 

cum (conj.), its orthography, 2 b; 
meaning, 95 c; as indef. relative, 
177 a; temporal (imperf. or plup. 
subj.), 178 b; causal or concessive 
(since, though), 180 c, 181 a, c; like 
quod, with indic., 180 c; in clause, 
for pres. participle, 202 c. 

cum... tum, 49 c, 95 c, 181a. 

-cundus, adj. ending, 98 b. 


D. 


D, final, changed to t, 2 b. 

Dactylic verse, 224 b. 

Dative, 11 c; endings, 18 b; in 
-abus, 14 ¢; in is (8d decl.), 21 b; 
-ubus, 28 c; in i (unus, &c.), 34 ¢. 
— Syntax, 121-1380; of Indirect 
Object, 121; after transitives, c; af- 
ter verbs of motion (poetic), 122 b; 
with ace. or abl. after dono, &c., 
id.; after intransitives, c, 123 (use 
of acc., c, 124 c) ; after impersonals, 
124 b; after compounds (ad, ante, 
&e.), 125; (ab, de, ex,) 126 a; 
poetic use, c; of Possession (with 
esse), id.; after compounds of 
esse, 127 a; as pred. with nomen 
est, id.; of Agency, with gerund- 
ive, b; after participles and pas- 
sives, id.; of Service, 128 a; of 
Nearness, Fitness, &c., b; after 
nouns or adjectives, 129 b ; of Ref- 
erence, c; for poss. gen., 180 a; for 
direction, id.; of volens, &c., b; 
Ethical, id.; with infin. (for acc.), 
155 b; of gerundive, 208 a. 

dea, 14 b, 250. 

Declaratory Sentence, 101 a. 

Declension, 12; general rules, 18 a; 


INDEX. 


of Nouns, i. 14, ii. 15, iii. 17-27, iv. 
28, v. 29; of Adjectives, i. ii. 33, 
ili. 35. 
Defective nouns, 31; adjectives, 37 c; 
- comparison, 39 ; tenses, 50 ; verbs, 
81 


Definitions of Syntax, 101-103; of 
Prosody, 215, 221-228. 

defit, 82 ec. 

deinde, denique, 87 c. 

Delos, infl., 250. 

-dem, affix, 45 b. 

Denominative verbs, 99 a,c; (com- 
pare 67 b). 

Deponent verbs, 75-77; reflexive 
signif., 76 b; list of irregulars, c ; 
semi-deponents, 77a. 

Derivation of Words, 96-100. 

Derivative verbs, 77 b, 99: 

Desideratives (in urio), 78 a, 99 c. 

deus, 16 b, 250. 

dic (imperative), 65 c. 

Dido, infl., 23 b. 

dies, gender of, 29 c (form dii, 30 a). 
difficilis, see facilis. 

diznus, with abl., 137 c; with clause 
of characteristic, 185 c. 

Dimeter Iambic verse, 226. 

Diminutives: nouns, 98 a; verbs, 
i7c, 99 ¢. 

Diphthongs, 1 b; sound of, 6 b; 
quantity, 7 a, 216 b. 

Diptotes, 31 a. 

Direct Discourse, 187 ec. 

pire a (ace.}, 183 ¢; (ace. or abl.), 

a. 

Distributive Numerals, 43 b. 

divum (divom), for deorum, 16 b. 

-do, -go, feminine endings, 23 c, 
93 a. 

domi (locative), 28 c, 145 a. 

domus, inflection of, 250 b. 

donee, 17) c¢; withsubj., 180 b. 

dono (dat. of service), 128 b; (verb, 
constr. of ), 122 b. 

Doubtful gender, 11 a. 

Dual forms, 42 b. 

Dubitative Subjunctive, 152 a. 

dubito an, 200 c; non... quin, 
184 b, 198 b, 

duc (imperative), 65 c. 

dum, with present indic., 158 a; fol- 
lowed by secondary tenses, 163 ¢ ; 
with subj. (provided), 175 ¢; (untz/), 
180 b; with clause for present 
participle, 202 c. 





263 


dummodo, 175 c, 180 b. 
duo, declined, 42 b. 
dus, participle in; see Gerundive. 


E, 


E (preposition), see ex. 

Ear.y Forms of alphabet, 2; Pros- 
ody, 282. 

Ecthlipsis, 223 a.~ 

edo, 80a. <. 

egeo, with gen., 120 ¢, 136 b. 

ejus modi, 115 a. 

Elision, 223 a. 

Ellipsis, 101 c. 

Emphasis, as affected by Arrange- 
ment, 212 ec. 

Enclitics, 7 c (quantity, 216 ¢); 
-cum, 44 c; -te, -pte, -met, -ce, 
45 a. 

English method of Pronunciation, 
6 


b. 

enim, 95 b, 96a. 

eo (irreg. verb), 80 b; eo..quo, 
49 ec, 140 ec. ; 

Epicene nouns, 11 a. 

Epistolary tenses, 161 b. 

-er (nom. ending), Nouns of 2d decl., 
16 c; 3d decl., 17 c; Adjectives, 
34, 35. 

ergo, 95 c; with gen., 115 b, 121 a. 

escit, 59 c. 

esse, and its compounds, 57-60; 
comparative forms, 59; (in mod- 
ern languages, 255;) as copula or 
substantive verb, 101 ¢c; omitted 
by ellipsis, 113 b ; compounds, with 
dat., 127 a. — est, there is, 212 b. 

et..et, 49 c, 95. 

etenim, 95 b. 

etiam, 87 a; in answers, 201 c. 

etsi, 175 b. 

-etum (noun-ending), 98 b. 

Erymo.oey, 1-100. 

Euphonic changes (vowels), 2 c; 
(consonants), 3 b. 

ex (prep.), 90 c; following its noun, 
148 a; compounds of, with dat., 
126 a. 

Exclamations, accus., 183 c; with 
infin., 156 b. 

Exclamatory sentences, 101 b; ace. 
and infin., 156 b. 

Expecting, hoping, &c., constr. with 
reflexive and infin., 195 b. 


264 


F. 


facilis, comparison, 38 c; construed 
with ad and gerund, 2U9 c. 

fac (imperative), 65 c. 

facio, 80 c; compounds, 81 a, 100c; 
facio ut, 198 a. 

fames (abl.), 18 c. 

fari (def. verb), 82 a, 

fas, with supine, 209 c. 

faxo, 80 ¢. 

Fearing, verbs of (ne or ut), 196 c. 

Feeling, nouns of, with gen., 117 a; 
verbs of, with gen. of object, 120 a; 
with acc. of cause, 181 b; with 
quod clause, 199 c. 

Feminine, general rule of gender, 
10 c; adjectives, lacking masc., 
84 b; abl. in o, id.; adj. in a from 
masc. of 3d decl., 37 a; abl. as ad- 
verb, 85 a. 

fer (imperative), 65 c. 

Festivals, plur. names of, 80 c. 

fero, 78 b; fido, 77 a. 

filius, 16 b, 250. 

es verbs of, with gen. or abl., 

Vb. 

Final Clauses, 102 c, 108 a, 182; as 
object-clauses, 183 a; 195-197. 
Final vowels, quantity of, 217; not 
affected by Position, 216 c. 
‘Finite verb (subject-nom.), 113 a. 

fio, 80; (defit, &c., 82 c). 

First Conjugation, 66; verbs of, 67. 

fisus (as pres. part.), 202 b. 

Foot in Prosody, 220 c; (classif. of 
feet, 221). 

fore ut, 55 c, 165 c, 198 a. 

foris (loc. form), 145 a. 

forsitan (-fors sit an), 85 b, 173 c. 

Fourth conjugation, 74, 76. 

Frequentative verbs, 77 c, 99 c. 

frugi, comparison of, 89 b; dat. of 
service, 128 b. 

fruor, fungor, with abl., 140 b. 

fuam, 59 c. 

fugit, as impers., 132 b. 

Future tense, 53 a; endings, 54 ec, 
61 b, c; periphrastic, 83 c¢ (see 
fore ut); passive with iri, 55 c, 
209 b; as imperative, 153 b; Syn- 

_ tax, 159 b; has no relative time, 
179 b; participle, 205 a. 

Future Perfect, 53a; Syntax, 161 a; 
for simple fut. id., repres. in indir. 
disc., 162 b; in protasis, 170 c. 





INDEX. 


G. 


G (in early use), same with c, 2 a. 

Gaius, infl., 250. 

Games, plur. names of, 30 c. 

gaudeo, 77 a. 

Gender, 9 c; grammatical, 10 a; 
general rules of, c; in 8d declen- 
sion, 23 C; of appositive, 104 c; 
of adjective (nearest noun), 105 e. 

General truth in secondary tenses 
(by seq. of tenses), 1638 c. 

GENiTive, 11 c; plural in um, 13 b; 
of Ist decl. in ai and as, 14 b; in 
ium, 19 a, c, 20 a, 21 b, 27 c; in 
ius, 84 b; in appos. with Posses- 
sive, 105 a, 108 b. —Synrax, 113- 
121; Subjective, 114 a; in pre- 
dicate, 8; limiting phrase, id.; of 
adj. for neut. nom. (sapientis), 
114 c; of substance, id.; for appos- 
itive, 115 a; of quality and meas- 
ure, id. ; with causa, id.; of value, 
b, 141 c; Partitive (with noun or 
adjective), 115 b; (with adverbs), 
116 a; (sancte  deorum, b) ; 
doubled, 117 a; Objective, with 
Nouns (of agency) and Adjectives 
(of reference), 117; of specifica- 
tion, 118 a; (animi, b), with words 
of likeness, &c., c; (the usual 
construc. with nouns, id.); with 
Verbs of memory, 119 a; of ac- 
cusing, &c.. b; of emotion, 120 a; 
(impersonals, id.); of plenty and 
want, c; 186 b, 140 b; with po- 
tior, 121 a, 127 a, 140 c; of Price, 
141 c; measure, 144; of Ge- 
rundive, 207. 

Gentile names, 98 b. 

Gerund, 50 a, 52 b; Syntax, 206-208. 

Gerundive, 52 a; stem, 55 b; peri- 
phrastic use, 83 c; with dat of 
agent, 127 c; after verbs of de- 
creeing, &c., 196 b; predicate use, 
205 ce; with verbs implying pur- 
pose, 206 b; origin of this form, 
207 a. 

Glyconic verse, 228 b. 

Government, 103 c. 

gratia, with gen., 115 b, 188 a. 

Greek nouns, i. 14 ¢, ii. 17 a, iii. 19 a, 
22 c, 23; adjectives, 34 b; rules 
of quantity, 215 ec, 216 a, 220 b; 
forms compared, 1 ¢, 15 b, 383 b, 
35 a, 386 c, 88 c, 42 a, 52 a, 54 b, 


INDEX. 


57 c, 59 c (esse), 63 c, 96 b, 97 a, 
113 ec, 148 a, 149 a, 166 b, 167 b, 
251, 252. 


H. 


H (aspirate), 1c; ch, 4c; omitted, 
id.; not reckoned in position, 
215 ¢. 

habeo, imperat., 153 b; with infin., 
156 a; with perf. part., 204 c. 

hactenus, 147 a. 

Hadria, gender of, 14 b. 

Heteroclite nouns, 31 b; adjectives, 
37 ¢. 

Heterogeneous nouns, 31 ¢c, 

Hexameter verse, 224. 

Hiatus, 223 b, 233-¢. 

hic, 45, 46. 

hiemps, 3 c, 20 b. 

Hindrance, implied in relat. clause, 

, 185 ¢; verbs of, with quominus, 
196 c; negative with quin, 198 b. 

Historical Infinitive, 156 c; Present, 
158 a; sequence of tenses with, 
163 ¢. 

Hoping, verbs of (with acc. of pers. 
or refl. pronoun), 195 b. 

Horace, metres of, 230, 231. 

hospita, 37 a. 

humi (locative), 145 c. 

Hortatory Subjuntive, 149. 


I. 


I, suppressed in obit, conicio, &c., 
3a; in abl. of 3d declension, 18 b; 
adjectives and participles, 27 b; 
in perfect, 55 a; added to root, 
62¢; lost in forms of capio, &e., 
63 ¢; as root or suffix, 96 b, c; in 
optative, 149 a. 

TIambic verse, 225. 

Ictus, 222. 

id quod, 111 b. 

idcirco, 95 c; as correlative, 182 b. 

idem, 46 ; derivation, 45 b. 

idoneus qui, 185 c. 

id temporis, 133 b. 

Ides, 23 b, 234. 

-ier in infin. passive, 65 ec. 

igitur, 95 c; position, 96 a. 

-ilis, adjective ending, 98 c. 

ille, 45, 46. 

-illo, verb-ending, 77 c, 99 ¢. 





265 


-im, accus. in 3d declension, 18 b; 
in present subjunctive, 65 c. 

immane quam, 1¥1 b. 

immo, 201 ¢. 

Imperative, 51 b; personal endings, 
54 b, 63 a; (dic, &., 65 b); of 
scio, &c. (fut. form), id., 153 a; 
(imperat. sentence, 101 a;) Syn- 
tax, 152; as equivalent to condi- 
tion, 172 c. 

Imperfect tense, 53 a; compared with 
Pertect, b ; lengthens vowel, 63 a; 
of hortat. subjunctive, 150 b; of 
opt. subj., ¢; of concess. subj., 
151 c. — Syntax, 158; in descrip- 
tions, c; for plup., id.; conative, 
id. ; of surprise, 159 a; for perf., b; 
epistolary, 161 b; subj. in condi- 
tions contrary to fact, 168 b; (in- 
dicative, 169, 174;) of fut. condi- 
tion transferred to past, 171 b; in 
temporal clauses, 178 a, 179 a. 

Impersonal verbs, 82, 83; passive of 
intransitives, 83 b, 126b ; miseret, 
&e., with ace. and gen., 120 a; 
libet, licet, with dat., 124 b; de- 
cet, &c., with accus., 132 b; with 

infinitive as subject, 154 b; with 
clause as subject (1T), 193 c. 

Impure syllable, 5 c. 

in, ate: of, 88 b, 146 b ; phrases, 
90 ec. 

Inceptive forms, 62 ¢; verbs (Incho- 
ative), 77 b, 99 c. 

Incomplete action, tenses of, 53 c. 

Increment of nouns, 218; of verbs, 
219. 

Indeclinable nouns, 81 a; gender, 
10 c; adjectives, 37 c. 

Indefinite Pronouns, 47 ce, 48; con- 
ditional expression, 166 a. 

Indefinite subject omitted, 113 a; ex- 
pressed by 2d person, 149 ¢, 171 ce. 

InpIcATIVE Moop, 51 a; forms of, 
61-63.—Syntax, 148; tenses, 157- 
161; in cond. clauses, 167 b, 1684; 
in apod. for subj., 169 a, 174 a; 
future, in cond. clause, 170 a; of 
absolute time, 157 a, 177 b; with 
cum, 178 c; in inverted clauses, 
179 b; with cum = quod, 180 c; 
in causal clauses, 181 b; with 
quod in subst. clause, 199. 

indigeo, with genitive, 120 c, 136 b. 

indignus, with abl., 1387 c; with 
relative clause, 185 b. 


266 


InprrREcT Discourse, 187-192; de- 
fined, 187 c; Indirect Narrative, 
188 ; subject-accus., b (omitted, 
155 c); use of quam, b, 189 a; 
relative clause, 188 ¢; conditional 
sentence in, 189 b; questions, c; 
Indirect Questions, 19U; future, b ; 
dubit. subj., c; accus. of anticipa- 
tion, id. ; early use of indic., 191 b; 
nescio quis, etc., id. ; si (whether), 
c; Indirect Commands, id. ; exam- 
ple of Indirect Discourse, 192. 

induo, double constr. of, 122 b. 

Inrinitive Moon, 651 b; endings, 
55 b; of fut. passive, c; passive in 
-ier, 65 e.—Synrax, 153-156; 
form and meaning, 153 c; as Sub- 
ject, ¢; of impersonals, 154 b; 
complementary, id. ; for subjunct. 
clause, c; with jubeo and veto, 
155 a; with subject-acc., b; sub- 
ject omitted, c; of purpose and 
result, 156 a; in exclamations, b; 
(cf. 197. ¢ ;) historical, 156; Tenses 
of, 164; the present only com- 
monly used, except in indir. disc., 
165 a, or passive, b, or in poetry, c; 
with accus. in subst. clauses, 194 a; 
after passives, b; after verbs of 
Wishing, 195 c; of Permission, 
196 a; of Determining, b; poetic 
use, 197 a; future passive, iri 

. with supine, 55 c, 209 b. 

infit, 82 c. 

Influence, verbs of with purpose- 
clause, 195 ce. 

Inflection defined, 8 a; of declension 
and conjugation, 9 b; unusual 
forms, 250. 

inquam, 81 ¢; position, 214 a. 

instar, with genitive, 115 b. 

Intensive verbs, 77 ¢c, 99 c. 

inter, reciprocal use of, 44 c, 91 b; 
with words of accusing, &c., 119 c. 

interest, constr. of, 120 b. 

Interjections, 9 c, 95 a. | 

Interlocked order of words, 213 c. 

Intermediate Clauses, 102, c; Syntax 
of, 185-187. 

Interrogative Particles, 9 c, 86 b, 
200; Sentences, 101 b. 

injussu, 29 b. 

Io, declined, 250. 

-io, -ium, noun-endings, 97 c; verb- 
ending of 8d conj., 62 c, 72 b. 

iri in fut. infin. passive, 55 c, 209 b. 





INDEX, 


Tonic verse, 229. 

ipse (ipsus), 45, 46 c. 

Irregular nouns, 30 b; verbs, 78. 

is, 45, 46 c; as correlative, 111 a. 

Islands, names of, gender, 10 c; loca- 
tive use, 144 b. 

iste, 45, 46. 

Ir as sign of impersonals, 82 c, 193 ce. 

Italian dialects, 252. 

itaque, 95; comp. with ergo, 96 a; 
position, 214 a. 

iter, declined, 22 b. 

Iterative verbs, 77 c. 

ium, gen. plur. of 3d decl. (vowel- 
stems), 19 a; (mute-stems), 20 b, 
21 b; (adjectives), 35, 36. 


J. 


Jam, 87 b. 

jecur, declined, 226. 

jubeo, constr. of, 123 c, 155 a, 194 a. 
jucundus, with ad and ger., 209 ¢. 
jungo, with abl., 140 a 

Juppiter, declined, 22 b, 250. 
jussu, 29 b. 

juvo, with accus., 123 ¢. 


juxta, 91 b; following noun, 148 a. 





K. 
K, supplanted by c, 2 a. 
Kalends, 284. 

L. 


L, doubled (in fallo, &c.), 62 b. 
Labial stems (3d decl.), 20 b, 24 b, 
26 ‘ 


b. 
Laocoon, decl., 250. 
lateo, with accus., 133 a. 
Latin Language, origin and compar. 
forms, 251-253; earliest forms, 
253 


libet (impers.), 83 b; with dative, 
124 b 


-libet (indefinite), 48 a. 

licet (impers.), 83 b; with dative, 
124 b; with dat. pred., 155 b; with 
subjunctive, 175 b, 176 ¢; meaning 
although, 196 a. 

Limit, 102 a. 


— Liquid stems (8d decl.), 19 b, 24, 26. 





INDEX. 


Locative Ablative, 142 b, 145. 

| Locative form, 12 b; decl.,i. 14 ¢, ii. 

- 16 a, iii. 22 ¢, iv. 28 c, v. 80 b; as 
adverb, 85 a; in appos. with abl., 
104 ¢; comp. with dative, 121 b; 
of names of towns, &c., 145 a. 

loco, without preposition, 145 c. 

longius, constr. without quam, 
130 a. 


M. 


M final, elision of, 223 a. 

magis in comparisons, 39 a, 109 a. 

magni, gen. of value, 115 b, 141 ¢c. 

majestatis, with words of secusing, 
119 ¢. 

malo, infl. of, 79 c. 

Masculine adjectives, 38 a. 

Material, genitive of, 114 c; ablative, 
137 b 

maxime in comparisons, 39 a. 

May (potential), how expressed, 
51 b 


Means, ablative of, 139 b. 

Measure, genitive of, 115 a, 144 a. 

Measures of Value, 235, 236. 

medeor, medicor, with dat. or acc., 
123 ¢. 

Meditative verbs (in -sso), 77 c, 99c. 

medius (middle part of), 109 b. 

memini, 81 b; imperat. form, 153 b; 
with pres. infin., 164 c. 

-met (enclitic), 45 a. 

Metre, 223 c. 

meus (voc. mi), 16 b, 33 c. 

militicz (loc.), 145 a. 

mille, decl. and constr., 48 a. 

minime, 41 a; in answer (no), 201 c. 

minoris (gen. of value), 141 c. 

minus, 41 a; constr. without quam, 
139 a. 

miror si, 199 c. 

mirum quam, 191 b. 

misceo, with abl. or dat., 140 a 

misereor, with gen., 120 a. 

miseret, 83 a; with accus. and gen., 
120 a. 

Modern pronunciation of Latin, 6 b; 
languages, compared with do., 255. 

Modification of subject or predicate, 
102 a. 

modo, dummodo (proviso), with 

_ hortat. subjunctive, 150 a, 175 c. 

Monoptotes, 31 a. 





267 


Months, gender of, 10 c; names in 
-ber, 385 c; construction, 146 ¢; 
divisions of, 284. 

Moops, 50 a, 51; 
156. 

Motion expressed with prepositions, 
122 b, 185 c, 144 b; indicated by 
compounds, 132 a. 

Motive, with ob or propter, 138 a. 

Mountains, names of, gender, 10 c. 

87 c. 

Multiplication by Distributives, 43 b. 

Multiplicatives, 43 ec. 

Mute stems (8d decl.), 20 a. 


Syntax of, 148- 


N. 


N final, in leon-, &c., 19 b; inserted 
in 3d conj. (frango, &c.), 62 b. 

nam, namque, 35 b, 95 b, 96 a. 

Names of men and women, 382. 

natus, &c., with abl., 136 c. 

-ne (enclitic), in questions, 200; with 
hic, &c., 45 b. 

ne, with hortat. subjunct., 150 a; in 
prohibitions, 152 b ; in final clauses, 
182 a; in consec., 183 c; with verbs 
of caution, 196 b; of fearing, Cc; 3 
omitted, id. 

nec enim, 95 b. 

Necessity, verbs of, 196 a. 

necne, 200 c. 

nedum, 183 a. 

nefas, with supine, 209 c. 

Negative particles, 9 c, 86 c, 87 a 
(non nemo, nemo non). 

nego, preferred to dico..non, 188 a. 

neque, 94 a, 95 a. 

nequeo, 82 b. 

e... quidem, 87 c, 214 a. 

nescio an, 200 c; nescio quis, 
191 b. 

Neuter passives, 77 a. 

Neuter Nouns, like cases in, 13 a; 3d 
decl. in al and ar, 17 c; of adjec- 
tive in s, 36 c, 37 a; accus. as ad- 
verb, 84 c; of adj. with abstr. 
nouns, 106 a, id. as noun, 107 b; 
partitive use, 115 c. 

Neuter Verbs, with agent (perire 
ab), 138 b 

Neutral passives, 77 b. 

ni, nisi, 166 b, 176 b. 

nimirum, 191 b. 

ningit, 21 c, 83 a. 


268 


nix, root, 21 c; inflection, 22 c. 

nolo, 79 b; noli, 1¥2 ec. 

nomen, 32 b; nomen est, with dat., 
127 a. 

Nominative, 11 b; formative from 
stem, 12 c; in adjectives, 36 a. — 
SynTax: predicate after esse, &c., 
104 a; as subject of verb, lld a; 
used for voc., 184 a; with opus as 
pred., 136 b. 

non in answers, 201 ec. 

non dubito quin, 198 c. 

Nones, 234. 

nonne, 200; non quod, —quia, 
—quin, -—quo, 186 c., 

Nouns, inflection of, 14-82; used as 
adjectives, 38 a, 107 b; verbal (ge- 
rund and supine), 50a; irregular 
and defective, 30-32; derivation 
of, 96-98 ; compound, 100 b; agree 
ment, 103; in relative clause, 110 c; 
understood with gen. (Castoris), 
114 a; (est sapientis), c; of 
agency, with obj. gen., 117 b; ver- 
bal, with dat., 129 c. 

ns as adjective ending, 36. 

num, 200 a; in indir. questions, b. 

Number, rule of, with appositive, 
104 ¢; adjective, 105 b; verb, 112. 

Numerals, 41-48 ; cardinal and ordi- 
nal, 41; distributive, 43 b; num. 
adverbs, ¢; as partitives, 115 c; 
with de or ex, instead of part. 
gen., 116 b. 

nunc, 87 b. | 


0. 


O for u, after u or v,2 b; as stem- 
vowel of 2d decl., 15 b; in verb- 
stems, 62 e. 

O si, with subjunctive of wish, 151 a. 

ob or propter, to denote object of 
feeling, 1388 a; force of ob in com- 
pounds, 93 a. 

Object defined, 101 ¢; indirect, 121 b; 
direct, 131 a. 

Oblique cases, 12 a. 

obvius, with dat., 125 c. 

odi, 81 b. 

omnes nos (instead of gen.), 116 c. 

Open syllables, 5 c; pronunciation, 
6 a; affix, 9 b; in compounds a 
becomes I, 68 a. 

opera, with gen. of agent, 188 b. | 

opinione (celerius opin.), 139 a. 


’ 


INDEX. 











oportebat (virtual present), 174 b. 
oportet, 83 b, 182 b. ; 
Optative, derivation and compariso 
with subjunctive, 149 b; sulj., 15 
opus and usus, with abl., 136 a 
(Opus as pred., b;) with perf 
part., 204 ©; with supine, 209 c. 
Oratio Obliqua, see Indirect Di 
course. 
Order of Words, 212-214. 
Ordinal numbers, 41 b ; how forme 
42b; declined, ec. ! 
Orpheus, declined, 250. 
Orthography, various, 4 c. 
os for us, in 2d decl., 15 ¢. 
os, ossis, infl., 22 c; (ossua, 28 b). 
Oscan forms, comp. with Latin, 
-osus, adjective ending, 98 b. 
ovat, &c., 82 a. 


Pi 
P, inserted euphonically, 3 c, 20 
72b 


pzenitet, 83 b, 120 a. 
palam, 147 b. 
Palatal, 1 b; stems of 3d decl., 21 ¢e 
gender, 24 b; forms, 27 b; ver 
62 ec. 
Parallel verb-forms, 65 c. 
Parisyllabic nouns, 17 b; adjectives, 
35 a. | 
parte (loc.), without prepos., 145 c. 
Participial clause, as condition, 172 b, 
Participies, 60 a, 51 ¢; (abl. ini 
21 b, 37 b; compared, 39 a); fu 
ture, of purpose, 51 c, 188 b, 205 b. 
perfect, as adj., 52 a, 88 c; (with 
habeo, 204 c;) periphrastic use. 
83 c; formation, 55 b; present, o: 
esse, 57 c; of deponents, 76 b. 
202 b; in ns, with gen., 117 ¢; in 
dus or tus, with dat. of agent. 
127 c; of source (natus, &c.), wit) 
abl., 186 c; in urus with fui=— 
plup. subj., 169 c, 189 b, 205 ¢; i 
dus or rus, in fut. apod., 170 ¢. —- 
Syntax, 202-206; perf. in pre: 
use, 202 b; adjective and predicat. 
use, 203; in tenses of complete | 
action, c; containing the mai. 
idea, 204 b; with opus, habeo, 
volo, c; with facio (in indi’. 
disc.), 205 a; future, use of, 2051 ; 





- (part. in dus, see Gerundive). 


Partictes, 9 c; forms and classifi- 
cation, 84-96; in compounds, 100; 

_ negative, 86 c, 87 a; conditional, 
174 ¢; interrogative, 200. 

Partitives, with genitive, 115 b. 

parum, 41 a. 

Passive Voice, forms wanting in, 
50 b; reflexive use, c, 83 b; (with 
acc., 183 b); terminations, 54 b; 
infin. in -ier, 65 c; participles of 
deponents, 76 c; impersonal (of 
intrans. verbs), 88 b; with dat., 
122 a; dat. of agent, 127 c; sub- 
ject, 131 a; of verbs of feeling, b; 
of asking, &c., with acc., 1382 c; 
of verbs of saying, &c., with acc. 
and infin., 194 b. 

Patronymics (-ades, -ides, &c.), 98 b. 

Peculiar forms of 3d decl., 22 a. 
elagus (neut.), 16 a. 
enes, 91 c; following noun, 148 a. 
enult, 7c; quantity of, 218-220. 
er, 91 c; in compos., 41 a; for 
agent, 138 a. 
erfect Tense, meaning, 53 b; end- 
ings, 54 b, 55 a; formed in 3d 
conj., 63 b; syncopated, 65 b; of 
subjunct. in prohibition, 150 a, 
152 b; (of optat. subj., antiquated, 
159 c;) of concess. .subj., 151 c; of 
dubit. subj., 152 a; Syntax, 159 c; 
implies action ceased, 160 a; in 
negations, b; for present in epist. 
style, 161 b; followed by second- 
ary tenses, 162 c; following pri- 
mary tenses, id.; in result, 163 a; 

_ with a fut. protasis, 171 a; (Infin.) 
for present, 165 a; after verbs of 

_ feeling, 165c; Participle in passive 
tenses, 52 a; of deponents, id., 
202 b. 
eriod, 214 b. 
eriphrastic Conjugations, 83 c. 
ermission, verbs of, 196 a. 
ersonal endings, 54, 56. 
ersons of Verbs, 54a; 112b; with 
relatives, 110 b; 2d (in subj.) of 
indefinite subject, 149 c, 171 ¢; 3d 
of imperat., antiquated, 152 c. 
ertzesum est, 120 a. 
to with ab, 133 a. 
halecian verse, 229. 
herecratie verse, 228. 
heebe, decl., 25 c. 
honetic decay, 2 c, 3 a; phonetic 
value of Roman alphabet, 6 a. 








INDEX. 





269 


Phrases, neuter gender, 10 c; as ad- 
verb, 85 b; moditying, 102 b; 
limited by gen., 114 b. 

piget, 88 b, 120 a. 

Place, relations of (names of towns, 
&e.), 144 b; abl. of, 142 b, 148 b; 
whence, 144 c¢; whither, id. ; 
where, 145; verbs of, how con- 
structed, 146 b. 

Plants, names of, gender, 10 c; in 
8d and 4th decl., 2y a. 

Plautus, use of quom with indic., 
179 b; prosodiai forms, 23 b. 

plebes, infl., 250; plebi (gen.), 

30 a. 

-plex, numeral adjectives, 43 c. 

pluit, 83 a (used also personally, id.). 

Plupertect, 53 a; of hortat. subj., 
150 b; of opt. subj. (wishes), ec, 
192 ¢; of concess. subj., 151 c; of 
preteritive verbs, 160 c; general 
use, id.; in epist. style, 161 b; 
(subj.) in conditions, 168 b; (subj.) 
expressed by -urus fui, 169 ¢, 
189 b; in temporal clauses, 178 a, 
179 a. 

Plural accus. as adverb, 85 b; of 
neuter adjectives, 107 c, 

Pluralia tantum, 30 ¢; with distribu- 
tive numerals, 43 b. 

pluris, gen. of value, 115 b, 141 e. 

plus, inflected, 37 b; without quam, 
1389 a. 

poenitet (see pzenitet), 83 b, 120 a. 

pone, 91 c. 

Position in prosody (does not affect 
final vowel), 216 c. 

Possessives in appos. with gen., 105a, 
108 a; as nouns, 107 a; for gen., 
108 b, 114 a; neuter of. c; abl. 
fem. with refert, &c., 188 a; with 
domi (loc.), 145 b.  ~ 

possum, 60 b; posse as fut. infin., 
165 ec. 

post, 91 c; with quam, 147 ec. 

postquam in temp. clause, 177 c. 

postulo ab, 158 a. 

postridie with gen., 121 a; with 
ace., 147 b; with quam, c. 

Potential Mood, how expressed in 
Latin, 51 a; potential subjunctive, 
1738 c. 

potior, with gen., 121 a; with abl., 

~ 140 c. 


pre, in compos., 41 a. 
Prenomen, 32 b. 


270 


preesertim with cum, 180 c. 

preter, 92 a. 

Predicate, 101 ¢; nominative, 104 a; 
adjective, 105 b; gender, 106 a; 
in relative clause, 111 b; after 
infin., 155 ¢. 

Prepositions, assimilation of, 4 a; 
classification and meaning (list), 
88-3 ; in compounds, ¥3 a, 100 c; 
do. with dat. (ad, ante, &c.), 125, 
126; with ace. (ad, ante), 125 c; 
(circum, trans), 132a; with verbs 
ot asking (ab, de, ex), 133 a; after 
words of origin (id.), 137 a; of 
time, 143 c; of place, 142 c, 144 b; 
for neighborhood (ad, apud), 
145 c; Syntax, 146-148; as ad- 
verbs, 147 b; followed by quam 
(ante, post), 147 c; following the 
noun, 148 a. 

Present stem, 538 ¢; how formed from 
root (8d conj.), 62; (see list, pp. 
72, 73). 

Present Tense, 53 a; endings, 54 c; 
vowel changes, 61,62; of subjunc- 
tive, 150-152; Syntax, 157; of 
continuing action, 157 b ; conative, 
c; for future, id. ; historical, 158 a; 
with dum, id.; used of extant 
writers, b ; followed by secondary 
tenses, 163 c; infin. after verb in 
past (potui), 164 b; (memini), c; 
Participle, 202 a ; how supplied in 
passive, 52 a, 202 c. 

Preteritive verbs, 81 b; 160. 

Price, abl. or gen. 141 c. 

pridie, with gen., 121 a; with acc., 
147 b; with quam, c. 

Primary Suffixes (a, i, u, ta, na, &c.), 
96 c; Tenses, 162. 

primo and primum, 87 c. 

Principal parts of verb, 64 b, 65 a. 

prius .. quam, 147 c, 179 c; in rela- 
tive clauses, id. 

pro, 92 a, 130 ¢. 
rocul with abl., 147 b. 
rohibitions (perf. subj. with ne), 
149 c, 152 b, 192 ¢. 

Promising, &¢., verbs of, 195 b. 

Pronouns, 44-48; Personal, 44 a; 
old forms, b; gen. in i or um, c; 
(omitted as subject, 113 a;) Re- 

_ flexive, 44 b, 46 c; Possessive, 44 b, 
47 b, 105 a, 114 a; (cujus, 48 c;) 
reciprocal with inter, 44c; Dem- 
onstrative, 45, 46; used as nouns, 


INDEX. 












107 a; as antecedent, 111 a; in- 
tensive (ipse), 46¢; Relative, 47; 
Syntax, 109-111; agreement wit 
appos., 110 b; as connective, 111 
Interrog. and Indefinite, 47, 48. 

Pronunciation, 5, 6. 

prope, 92 a; with acc., 147b; asa 
verb, id. . 

Proper Names, 32; in plural, 30 c. 

propter, 92; following noun, 148 a, 

Prosopy, 215-231; early peculi 
ties, 232. 

prosum, 60 a. 

Protasis, 166 a (see Conditions). 

Proviso, 175 c, 180 b. 

-pte, -pse (enclitic), 45 a. 

pudet, 83 b, 120 a. 

pugnatur, 83 b. 

Punishment, abl. of, 119 c. 

Pure syllable, 5c. 

Purpose, infin. of, 156 a; clause o 
182; ways of expressing, 183. 


Q. 


Que res (or id quod), 111 b. 

queeso, 82 a. 

Quality, genitive of, 115 a. 

quam with superl., 40 c; in com- 
parisons, 108 c, 109 a, 188 c; after 
prepos., 147 c; followed by rel. 
clause, 185 a; (in indir. dise.), by 
infin., 188 b, 189 a; by result clause, 
197 b. 

quam si, 174 c. 

quamlibet, quamquam, quamvis, 
48 a, 151 b, 175 b, 176 «. 

quando, interrog., 49a, 95 c; indef. 
177 a; causal (since), 181 b. 

quanti, gen. of value, 141 c. 

Quantity, rules of, 215-220; (0! 
Greek words, 215 c). 

quantum vis, 176 c. 

quasi, 174 c. | 

-que (enclitic), forming universals. 
48 c. 

queo, 82 b. 

ques (nom. plur.), 47 ¢. 

Questions, 200, 201; Indirect, 190), 
(indic. in, 191 b), 200 b; in Indi. 
Disce., 189 ec. 

qui (relative), inflected, 47; qui 
(adverbial), 47 b. 

quia, 95 c, 181 b, 186 b. | 





- quidem, 87 c, 214 a. | 


-INDEX. 


quin, 184 a; non quin, 186 c; 
non... quin, 1938 b. 
quippe cum, 180 c; quippe qui, 


os iam 47 a; quis (abl. plur.), c. 

quisquam, 48 ec. 

quisque, 43 c; with superl., 41 a; 
with plur. verb, ll2c¢. 

quisquis, 48 a. 

quo, in final clauses, 182 b; non 
quo, 186 ¢ 

quo..eo, 49 c.— quoad, 180 b. 

quod with indic., 181 b; in inter- 
med. clause, 186 b; in substantive 
clause, 199 b; as accus. of specifi- 
cation (whereas), id.; with verbs 
ot feeling, c 

quod si, 133 b. 

quom, 2 b, 95 c, 178 b, 179 b (see 
cum). 

quominus, 182 c, 184; with verbs 
of caution and hindrance, 196 b. 

quoniam, 95 c, 181 b. 

quoque, 27 a. 

quot, 116 c. —quum, see cum. 


R. 


R, double in noun-stems, 19 c; in 
verb-stems, 62 b. 

Radical syllables, quantity of, 96 b, 
215 b, 220 b. 

ratus (as pres. part.), 202 b. 

reapse, 45. 

recordor, with acc., 119 b. 

Reduplication, 61 b, 62 a, b, 63 b; in 
perfects of 3d conj., 73 c; lost in 
compounds, 65 a; of roots, 96 b; 
rule of quantity, 219 c. 

réfert, with gen. or poss., 120 b. 

Reflexive Pronouns, 44 b; Verbs 
(deponent), 76 b; use of passive, 
50 c; with object-accusative, 133 b. 

Relative Adverb=—Pronoun with pre- 
pos., lll c; as connective, 96 a. 

Relative Clause, 102 b; classified, 
193; equiv. to condition, 166 c, 
172 b; of purpose, 182, 195; of 
result, 183 c, 197; of characteristic, 
184 b. 

Relative Pronouns, 47; as connec- 
tives, 103 b, 111 c; rule of agree- 
ment, 109 ¢ ; person of verb, 110 a; 
agreement with appositive, 110 b. 

Relative Time, 177. 

repetundarum, 119 c. 





271 


Resolution of syllables in prosody, 
‘222 a. 

Resolving, eche of, 196 b. 

respublica, 32 a. 

Result, infin. of (use), 156 b; in perf. 
or imperf. subj., 163 a; clauses of, 
183 c; subst., clause of, ly¥7 a; 
used elliptically, 197 b; following 
quam, id. 

Rhythm, 215. 

Rivers, names of, gender, 10 c. 

rogo, constr. of, 182 ¢. 

Roman Writers, 256. 

Romance (or Romanic) languages, 
254; comparative forms, 205. 

Roor, 8c, 9 b; of esse and fui, 59 c; 
of verbs of 3d conj., 62 b (list, 72, 
73) ; ni developed into Stem, 8 c, 
9a, 9 

ruri, ate 145 a. 

rus, constr. of, 144 b. 


S. 


S elided, 2 b, 232 a; for t, 3 c; be- 
comes r, 3 a, 19 b; as nomin. end- 
ing, 12 c, 13 a; in perf. stem., 62 a, 
63 b, 64 b; syncopated (dixti= 
dixisti), 65 b. 

salve, 82 b. 

Sanskrit forms, 13 a, 22 b, 38 c, 59 ¢, 
61 a, 63 c, 96 b, 97 a, 148 a. 

Sapphic verse, 228 (strophe), 229. 

satis, non satis, 41 a. 

satis est, with perf. infin., 165 c. 

sc added to verb-root, 62 c. 

scin (scisne), 5 b. 

scito, imperat. form, 65 c, 153 b. 

-SCO (inceptive), 77 c, 99 c. 

Second Conjugation, 61 c, 68; verbs 
of, 69. 

Secondary Tenses, 162; (by synesis, 
164 b ;) following histor. present, 
163 c. 

secundum, 92 b. 

secundus (participial), 98 c, 207 a. 

oar gg (as pres. part.), 202 b. 

sed, 95 

ie ded 77 a. 

Semi-vowels, 1c; j, v (i, u), 2 a. 

senati, senatuos (gen.), 28 c. 

senex, infl., 22 c; compared, 40 a. 

Sentences, classif. of, 101 b. 

Separation, with dat. (adimo, &c.), 
126 a; abl. of, 135 a. 

Sequence of Tenses, 161 c. 


272 


sera nocte, 109 b. 

sestertium, sestertius, 32, 235, 236. 

seu, see sive. 

si, 166 b; (whether), 191 c; si non, 
176 b; miror si, 199 c. 

siem, 59 c. 

Significant endings, 97 b. 

Signs of Quantity, 7b; of Accent, 8c. 

-sim, in perf. subjunctive, 65 c. 

similis, with genitive, 118 c; with 
dative, 129 b. 

Simois, infl., 250. 

simul, with ablative, 147 b. 

simul atque (ac), 177 c. 

sin, 166 b. 

Singularia tantum, 30 ce. 

sis (—si vis), 5 b. 

sive, 95 b, 176 b. 

-sO, in future perfect, 65 c. 

sodes (si audes), 5 b, 77 b. 

soleo, 77 a. 

solitus (as present part.), 202 c. 

solus, declined, 34 ¢; with qui, in 
subjunctive clause, 185 a. 

Space, accusative of, 183 c, 144 a. 

Special verb-forms, 65 c. 

Specification, accusative of, 183 a; 
ablative of, 142 a. 

Spelling, various, 4 c. 

Stanza or Strophe, 229. 

Srem defined, 8 b; formation of, 9 a, 
96 b; (incorrect defin., 18 c;) of 
Nouns (see Declensions), 12 ¢c (in 
3d decl., 23-27, see list); of Ad- 
jectives, 33 b ; of verb-tenses, 53 c, 
64 b; changes in, 54 c, 62 b; stem- 
vowel, 61, 64; present, of 3d conj., 
62; (u-stems, c;) perfect, 63 ; quan- 
tity of, 220 a. 

Stem-building, 9 a; (see 96-99). 

sub, in compounds, 41 a; constr. of, 
87 b, 146 a. 

Subject, 101 b; of verb (nom.), 113 a; 
indef. (omitted), 118 b; (2d per- 
son), 149 c, 171 ¢; of passive, 131 a; 
of infin. (ace.), 183 ¢, 155 b. 

SusyuncTIvE Moop, tenses wanting 
in, 50 b; how used, 51 a; present 
(vowel-change), 61 a, c, 63 ¢.— 
Syntax, 148-152; original form 
and meaning, 149 a; Hortatory, b 
(2d pers. indef., c), 171 ¢; in pro- 
hibition, 150 a, 152 b; proviso (with 
modo), 150 b; past tenses, id. ; 
as condition, 172 ¢c; Optative, 
150 c; Concessive, 151 b, 175 b; 





INDEX. 


Dubitative, 152 a; Tenses of, 161- 
164; rule of Sequence, 162; in 


Conditions, 164, 163; fut. cond., — 


170; (past, by seq. of tenses, 
171 b) ; 2d person for indef. sulj., 
171 c; of repeated action, id. ; 
Potential, 173 b; of caution, ¢; 
with cond. and compar. particles, 
174 c; of Relative Time, 177 b; 


after cum (temporal), 178; (cau-— 


sal), 180; antequam, &c., 180 a; 
dum, b; of Cause, 181 b, 185 c; 
in Indirect Discourse (subord. 
clause), 181 c, 186 a, 188 ¢; in 


Final Clauses, 182; after nedum, — 


188 a; of Result, c; after quin 
and quominus, 184 a; of Charac- 
teristic, b; with unus (solus) 
qui, 185 a; quam, id.; of re- 
striction and proviso, b; with 


dignus, &c.. ¢; in Intermediate — 
Clause, id., 186; in Indirect Dis- — 


course, with relative, 188 ¢c; con- 
ditional, 189 b; question, c; (In- 
direct Question, 190, 200); com- 
mands, 191 ¢; with ut, in Sub- 
stantive Clauses of Purpose, 195; 
of Result, 197 ; with verbs of com- 
manding, &c., 195 c; of fearing, 
196 c; happening, &c., 197 a; 
after quam, b; in exclamations, c. 

Subordinate clauses, 102 ¢; in indir. 
dise., 186, 188-191. 

SupstanTIVE Ciausss defined, 102; 
Syntax, 198-199; acc. and infin., 
194 a; (passive constr., b;) of pur- 
pose, 195; of result, 197 ; indic. 
with quod, 199; (Indirect Ques- 
tions, 196). 

Suffixes, primary (a,i, u, ta, na, &c.), 
96; significant, 97-99. 

sum, 58 (see esse). 

summus (fop of), 109 b. 

sunt qui, 177 b, 184 ¢. 

super, supra, 92 a. 

Superlative endings, 88 a; of emi- 
nence, 40 c; with quam, id. ; with 
quisque, 41 a; of a part, 100 b; 
with relative, 111 b; used as par- 
titive, 115 c. 

Supine, 29 a, 50 a, 52 b; stem, 53 ¢, 
55 b; in 8d conj., 63 c; accus. of 
direction, 144 a; Syntax, 209. 

sus (subus), 22 b. 

Syllables, 5 b; pure, open, &c., Cc. 

Synalepha, 223 a. 





INDEX, 


Synesis, 103 b; of adjectives, 106 b; 
of relative, 110 b; of verb, 112 c; 
of secondary tenses, 166 a. 

Synopsis of tenses, 64 c; of Con- 
structions of Syntax, 248, 249. 

Synrax, 101-214; Subject and Pre- 
dicate, 103-113; Construction of 
Cases, 113-148; Syntax of the 
Verb, 148-209; General Rules, 
210, 211; Outline of, 237-247. 


es 


T for d (set, aput), 2 b; inter- 
changed with c, 4 b; as personal 
ending, 54 c; in Supine stem, 61b, 
62 a; in verb-stem, 62 c. 

teedet, 83 b, 120 a. 

tamen (position); 96 a. 

tamquam, 174 c. 

tanti, gen. of value, 141 ¢c. 

_tantum, as correl., 49 b; with hor- 
tat. subjunctive, 150 a. 

tantum abest ut, 197 c. 

-tas, -tia, noun endings, 98 a. 

-te (enclitic), 45 a. 

Teaching, verbs of (2 acc.), 183 c¢. 

Temporal particles, 94 c; clauses, 
102 c, 176-181. 

-ter (in alter, &c.), 34 c; as adjec- 
tive-ending, 35 b, 98 b. 

Tenses, 50 a; of continued action 
in passive, c; of incomplete or 
completed action, 52 c, 203 ¢; use 
of perf. and imperf., 53 b; classif. 
of by stems, c; tense-endings, 54— 
57 ; derivation of do., 57 ce. — Syn- 
Tax, 157-165; of indiec., 157-161; 
of subj., 161-164; of infin., 164; 
Rule of Sequence, 162. 

tenus, 92 c, 146 ¢c, 148 a. 

terra marique, 145 a. 

Tetrameter lambic, 226. 

Thales, infl., 250. 

Third Deciension (nouns), 17-27; 
Conjugation (verbs), 62, 63, 70-73 
(list, 72, 73). 

tigris, infl., 23 a, 250. 

-tio, -tura, -tus (-tutis), noun-end- 
ings, 97 c. 

Time, absolute and relative, 157, 
161; how long (acc.), 133 c, 143 b; 
when (abl.), id. 

-tor, -trix, nouns of agency, 97 c; 
(used as adjectives, 38 a). 





273 


totus, abl. used without prepos., 
145 ¢. 

Towns, names of, gender, 10 ¢; in 
us, fem., 16 a; in e, neut., 18 ¢c; 
Construction of, 144. 

trans, 92 ; comp. of, with acc., 132 a. 

Trees, names of, gender, 10 c. 

tres, 42 c. 

‘Trimeter Iambic, 225. 

Triptotes, 31 a. 

Trochaic verse, 227 a. 

-tudo, -tus, noun-endings, 98 a. 

tuli (tetuli), 78 b. 

tum, 87 b; with cum, 95c, 181 a. 


U. 


U, when semi-vowel becomes v, 2 a; 
not allowed to follow u or v, id. 

u stems of verbs, 62 c, 64 a, 96 ¢c. 

ubi in temporal clauses, 177 a, c. 

-ubus in 4th decl., 23 c. 

ullus, infl., 34 ¢; use, 48 c. 

ultra, 93 a, 148 a. 

um for arum, 14 c; for orum, 16 b. 

Umbrian forms compared with the 
Latin, 253. 

umquam (unquam), 48 c. 

Undertaking, verbs of (with ge- 
rundive), 206 a. 

unus, infl., 34.c; in plural, 43 b. 

unus qui, with subj., 185 a. 

-urio (desiderative), 78 a, 99 c. 

-urus, part. in, 51 ¢; with fui, 169 ¢, 
189 b; use, 205. 

usquam, 48 c. 

usque, with acc., 147 b. 

usus, with abl., 136 a; (usui, dat. 
of service, 128 b). 

ut, with concess. subj., 151 a, 175 b, 
176 c; as indef. relat. 177 a; ut 
cum, 180 c; in final clauses, 182; 
consec. do., 183; subst. do., 195, 
197; with verbs of Fearing, 196 c; 
omitted, id.; ut non, 183 c, 197. 

ut, utpote, quippe, with relative 
and subjunctive, 180 c, 185 b. 

uter, infl., 34 e. 

uterque, 48 c ; with plur. verb, 112 ¢; 
with nouns and pronouns, 116 ce. 

uti, utinam, with subj. of wish, 
151 a, 192 ¢. 

utor, with abl., 140 c. 

ut si, 174 ec. 

utrum..an, 200. 


274 


We 


V (for u), 2a,6 a,15¢; syncopated 
in perfect stem, 65 b. 

valde, 41 a. 

Value, genitive of, 115 b, 141 ¢; 
measures of, 235, 2386. 

vapulo, 77 b. 

Variable nouns, 31 b; adjectives, 
87 c. 

-ve, vel, 95 b. 

velim, vellem, 151 a. 

veluti, velutsi, 174 c. 

veneo (venum ¢€0), 77 b, 80 a. 

Verss, 50-83; forms, 54, 56; end- 
ings, 55-57; special and parallel 
forms, 65 b; Regular, 66-75; De- 
ponent, 75-77; Irregular, 78-80; 
Defective, 81; Impersonal, 82; 
Derivation of, 99; compound, 
100 b. — Syntrax, 112, 113, 148- 
209; omitted, 118 b; of remem- 
bering, &c., 119 a; of accusing, 
&e., b; of emotion, 120 a; of 
plenty, &c., c; of relating, &c., 
194; of commanding, promising, 
asking, wishing, 195; of permit- 
ting, resolving, caution, effort, 
fear, 196 ; of happening, &c., 197. 

Verba sentiendi et declarandi, 155 b. 

Verbals in ax, 98 b; with gen., 117 ¢. 

veritus (as present), 202 b. 

vero, 96 c; in answers. 201 a. 

Verse, 222 c; forms of, 224-231. 

verum or vero, 95 b. 

vescor, with abl., 140 b. 

vesperi (loc.), 16 c, 145 b. 

veto, constr. of, 155 a, 194 a, 195 ¢. 

vetus, infl., 36 ¢ ; comparison, 38 ec. 

-vi in perfect, 61 b, c, 68 b, 64 b, 65. 





INDEX. 


vicem (adverbial), 133 b. 

videor, with dative, 128 a. 

vin (visne), 5 b. 

vis, infl., 22 e. 

vitio (dat. of service), 128 b. 

Vocative, 12 a, 18 a; of nouns in 
ius, 16 b; Syntax, 184; (of adj. 
for nom., b); Greek in i, 217 b. 

Voices, 50 a. 

volo, infl., 78, 79; with infin., 194 b, 
195 ¢; with perf. part., 204 c. 

voti (damnare), 119 c. 

Vowels, 1 b; Italian sound, 5 Cc; 
strengthened (see Vowel increase);. 
weakened, 3 a, 63 a. 

Vowel change in verbs, 56 a, 66 b; 
in present subjunctive, 63 ¢; in 
compounds, 66 a. 

Vowel-increase, 2 c, 61 a, 62 b, 63 b. 

Vowel scale,2c. + 

Vowel stems, 12 c, 17 b, 19 a, 20a; 
gender and forms, 24. 


W. 


W, the letter not found in Latin, 1 a. 

Way by which (abl.), 145 e. 

Wishes and Commands, 192. 

Wishing, verbs of, constr., 151 ec, 
173 c, 195 e. 

Wonen, names of, 82 c. 


‘ & 


Y in words of Greek origin, 2 a; 
noun-stems in, 23 b; in verb-stem, 
62 ¢. 

ya, primary suffix, 96 c, 97, 98 a. 

Year, date of, 233; months, 234. 





AUTHORS AND 


Ceesar: Bell. Civ. de Fato. 
Bell. Gall. de Finibus. 
Bell. Afric. ro Flacco. 

Cicero: Academica. zelius. 
pro Archia. de Legibus. 
ad Atticum, Leg. Agraria. 
Brutus. pro Ligario. 


in Catilinam. pro Manilio. 


ro Cluentio. ro Murena. 
ato Major. e Nat. Deorum. 
De Inventione. de Officiis. 
pro Deiotaro. Orator. 
de Oratore. Paradoxa,. 
de Divinatione. Philippics. 
Div. in Cecil. pro Plancio. 
ad Familiares. in Pisonem. 


WORKS CITED. 


ad Q. Fratrem. Plautus. 
pro Rabirio. Amphitruo. 
ro Rose. Amer. Asinaria. 
ull (Leg. Agr.). Captivi. 
ro Sestio. Trinummus. 
opica. Pliny. 
Tusc. Quest. Sallust: Catil. 
in Verrem. Jugurtha. 
Q. Curtius. Seneca: Epist. 
Horace Tacitus: Agricola. 
Juvenal Annales. 
Livy. Historiz. 
Lucretius. Terence: Heaut. 
Nepos. Virgil: A®neid. 
Ovid. Ecloge. 
Persius Georgica. 


aunouncements, 





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GREEK MOODS AND TENSES. The Fonrth Edition. 
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GOODWIN’S GREEK READER, Consisting of Extracts 
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